IB 105 Final Study Guide PDF

Preview

Summary

study guide for final exam...

Description

Final Study Guide: Review of Lessons Week 1: ● ● ● ●

Chicago River: sewage dumped into the Chicago River, disease out-breaks of cholera and typhoid outbreaks Sound Science: Phrase used by corporate public relations and government agency spokesmen to describe the scientific research used to justify a claim or position. Environmental Science—an interdisciplinary area of study that includes how the world works and the human impact on the world. Natural Philosophers— ○ Ralph Waldo Emerson: “behind nature, throughout nature, spirit is present” ○ Theodore Roosevelt: modern conservation ■ recognition of conservation through wise use as a public responsibility

○

■

recognition of resource ownership as a public trust

■

recognition of outdoor resources as integrated systems

■

recognition of science as a means to effective resource management

He appointed Gifford Pinochet as chief of the Forest Service ■

Forest protection “greatest good, for the greatest numbers, for the longest time.”

○

Aldo Leopold: American Scientist and environmentalist best known for wildlife management ■

○

Raising Awareness after the effects of DDT ■

●

Rachel Carson: Wrote Silent Spring—warn effects of DDT

Environmentalism in the 1960’s and 70’s: ○

●

Influential writings

Earth Day ■

Clean Air Act (1963) - signed into law by Johnson

■

Establishment of the US Environmental Protection Agency by Nixon

■

Clean Water Act (1972) - vetoed by Nixon, but overridden by Congress

■

Endangered Species Act (1973) signed into law by Nixon

■

Safe Drinking Water Act (1973) - signed into law by Ford

Improved Erosion Controls: ○

US dust bowls

○

Civilian Conversation Corps: planted trees as windbreaks that helped inform farmers of better planting and tiling practices

●

Reducing Smog: ○

●

LA first smog attack in 1943

Reducing Chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) ○

Montreal Protocol (1987): ozone hole has been on the mend

●

Reducing Acid Rain: ○

1990 Amendment to the Clean Air Act introduced reductions of SO2—main pollutant of acid rain

●

Cap and Trade Works: ○

Government setting an absolute limit to pollution levels and in monitoring pollution output

○

What’s more cost effective? To reduce emissions or to buy credit from others who are more efficient

●

Endangered Species Act Successes ○

Five Criteria:

○

There is the present or threatened destruction, modification, or curtailment of its habitat or range.

○

The species has been overutilized for commercial, recreational, scientific, or educational purposes.

○

The species is declining due to disease or predation.

○

There is an inadequacy of existing regulatory mechanisms to protect the species.

○

There are other natural or manmade factors affecting the species continued existence. ■

Bald Eagle, Gray Wolf,

●

Sustainability, stewardship, and sound science= 3 VITAL CONCEPTS OR IDEALS.

●

UIUC Two Grand Challenges:

Grand Challenge 1: Maintain or restore natural ecosystem function while providing essential human services. ●

Have closed loops, meaning that any waste from one process is re-used or becomes input to another process, with no waste accumulating in the environment.

●

Re-use non-renewable resources

●

Use renewable resources as a rate less than their renewal rates.

●

Provide habitats to healthy and diverse populations of native species.

○ Grand Challenge 2: Sustainably raise the quality of life for the world's poor to acceptable levels.

●

●

Tragedy of the Commons: ○

Lake example. Sharing is caring? When it’s not your own?

○

Destruction of common resources is not inevitable

○

The commons could be used sustainably.

Philosophies: ○

Aldo Leopold: good example of environmental ethics

○

Anthropocentric: philosophy where only people are morally significant and the environment is valued only as support for humans.

○

Ecocentric: environment has inherent value and deserves direct moral consideration

●

Astrology—doesn’t lead to ongoing research, fake science

●

Job of a scientist is not to find support for his or her hyptheses

●

John Muir and Theodore Rooselvelt worked together to start the National Park System

●

GPI=metric used to measure the economic growth of a country & includes the cost of unpaid labor, GDP= best way to measure a country’s economy

●

Citizens of the poorest countries may resent restrictions from developed countries becuase they have a much greater impact on the environment

●

Yellowstone National Park=Example of a common that has been protected

●

Science sucks and doesn’t involve creativity?

●

No single scientific method that all scientists fllow

Gaylord Nelson's Five Characteristics of Sustainability Gaylord Nelson believed strongly that economic and environmental well-being are mutually reinforcing and must be pursued simultaneously. He was a US senator from Wisconsin, counselor to The Wilderness Society, and an environmentalist who was the principal founder of Earth Day in 1970. His five characteristics of sustainability are a road map for any community pursuing sustainability. 1. Renewability – use renewable resources no faster than they can be replaced. Example: Champaign-Urbana uses water from the Mahomet Aquifer, an underground river of water 1.6 million years old moving slowly across central Illinois. It takes about 3000 years for surface water to reach the aquifer replacing water pumped on a daily basis. As populations grow, as need for agricultural irrigation grows, the aquifer may become depleted. Our rate of use determines whether the aquifer is renewable or not. 1. Substitution – when possible, use renewable resources instead of nonrenewable resources. Example: Waste-water can be filtered and used as a replacement for the water used in toilets, to water yards, or in agricultural irrigation. This reduces our need for ground water. 1. Interdependence – local communities recognize that the larger system must also be sustainable. Example: The phrase that best explains this is “Everything is connected to everything else.” To continue with the ground water example—As each community above the aquifer continues to draw water from it, they reduce the availability of ground water for all others. The success of this step is dependent on our definition of community. If we define our community as the municipality that we live in, then one would not care about the other communities using the aquifer. If we define our community as our state, country or even the world community, then the consequences of our actions take on a different dimension. 1. Adaptability – can change to take advantage of new opportunities. Example: Adaptability implies change. For a community to take advantage of a new resource, the community must be able to identify a need for change and have a willingness to change. To make the ground water resource last for future generations, the current generation must be willing to use less or accept a substitution. Without this adaptability, the community does not have a commitment to sustainability.

1. Institutional commitment – adopts laws that mandate sustainability. Example: There are really two types of institutional commitment. First, the community must be committed to the concept of sustainability. The community must change its behavior for its actions to be sustainable; change does not happen without commitment. Second, through legislation, the community makes a commitment to sustainable behavior and to making consequences for unsustainable actions by members of the community. Staying with the ground water use example, if a community member waters his/her lawn in defiance of a law aimed at a reduction in ground water use, that community member should be fined an adequate amount to discourage this behavior in the future. Also, the community member should feel social pressure that discourages inappropriate ground water use. For these steps to work, our values also need to change. The community must value ground water for more than today’s usefulness. The community must see value in maintaining ground water for use by future generations. This idea has led to the development of Ecological Economics.

The Mahomet Aquifer is the most important aquifer in east-central Illinois. Composed of sand and gravel, it is part of the buried Mahomet Bedrock Valley. It underlies 15 counties and ranges from 50 to 200 feet thick.

Week 2: Lesson 1— ● Descent with modification: ○ Evolution only occurs when there is a change in gene frequency with a population over time. ■ Example: Beetles of different color, generations later one particular beetle becomes more common than another ● Mechanisms of change: ○ How do gene frequencies change over time? ■ 1. Mutation—could cause parents with genes for bright green coloration to have offspring with a gene for brown coloration. ■ 2. Migration/Gene Flow—ex. Pollen being blown to a new destination or people moving to new cities or countries. ■ 3. Genetic Drift—chance. “Two brown beetles happened to have four offspring survive to reproduce. Several green beetles were killed when someone stepped on them.” ● Affects population (different than natural selection) through an entirely random process ● All by chance ● Genetic drift doesn’t work to produce adaptations ■ 4. Natural selection—ie. Brown beetles are easier for birds to stop,

●

●

●

●

●

●

survival of the fittest, which gene will guarantee a higher rate of life! Genetic Variation— ○ Some individuals are genetically different from others. ○ Three primary sources of genetic variation: mutations, gene flow, and sex. Natural Selection— ○ Three requirements for evolution by natural selection: variation, heritability of variation, and differential success in survival and reproduction as a result of this variation. ○ If you have all of these three things, you will have natural selection as an outcome. Adaptation— ○ A feature that is common in a population because it provides some improved function ■ Produced by natural selection ○ Can take many forms: a behavior that allows better evasion of predators, a protein that functions better at body temperature, an anatomical feature that allows the organism to access a valuable new resource (ie. mimicry of insects to avoid evading predators) Not an adaptation? Vestigial Structures. ○ A vestigial structure= A feature that was an adaptation for the organism’s ancestor, but that evolved to be non-functional because the organism's environment changed. ■ Ie. fish that live in completely dark caves. Misconceptions about natural selection: ○ Natural selection= not all powerful, doesn’t produce perfection ○ Variation + Differential Reproduction + Heredity = Natural Selection ■ Selects among whatever variations exist in the population, the result is evolution ○ Natural Selection = not a random process, selection acts on that variation in a very non-random way...Natural Selection is NOT random. DNA, the language of Evolution ○ DNA—molecule that codes for heritable traits- came to the attention of scientists late in the history of evolution. ○ Mendel’s work: rapidly realized that life was somehow encoded in GENES. ○ GENES were a mystery but that did not stop scientists from working out dynamics of mutations and how new forms of life could result from natural selection ○ DNA= made up of four base units: A, T, G, and C ■ Sequence of these bases encodes instructions. ● Some parts of DNA= for turning genes on and off ● Some part= have no function ● Some parts= don’t understand yet ● Some parts= carry the instructions for making proteins, long

chains of amino acids Protein coding DNA can be divided into codons: three bases that specify an amino acid or signal the end of the protein ○ Ie. GCA ● Base-pairing rules: the amount of A and T are always exactly the same; exactly as much G as C is also in its DNA! ● The causes of mutations: ○ Changes in the DNA sequence= result is a genetic mutation. Mutations happen for several different reasons. 1. DNA fails to copy accurately. Most mutations are “naturally occuring.” i. Cell divides and it makes a copy of its DNA that isn’t always quite perfect 2. External influences can create mutations: i. Can be caused by exposure to specific chemicals or radiation. ii. Agents cause the DNA to break down. iii. So when the cell repairs the DNA, it might not do a perfect job. iv. So the cell would end up with DNA slightly different than the original DNA, and hence a mutation! ● Effects of mutations: ○ Somatic mutations: occur in non-reproductive cells and won’t be passed onto offspring ○ Germ-line mutations: matter to large scale evolution and are those that can be passed onto offspring! ■ Single germline mutation can have a range of effects. ■ 1. No change occurs in phenotype: mutation occurs in a stretch of DNA with no function, or perhaps it occurs in a protein coding region, but ends up not affecting the amino acid sequence of the protein ■ 2. Small change occurs in phenotype: ie. single mutation causes cat’s ears to curl backwards. ■ 3. Big change occurs in phenotype: DDT resistance in insects are sometimes caused by single mutations. Can have negative effects for the organism. Mutations that cause the death of an organism= called lethals. ● Little mutations with big effects: Mutations to control genes ○ Mutations to control genes can have major and sometimes positive effects. ○ Mutation to a “conductor” in an orchestra can have a cascade of effects in the behavior of genes under its control. ■ Hox genes (found in animals) help direct the building of body “units” such as segments, limbs, and eyes; it may require a change in a Hox gene and the favor of natural selection to evolve a major change in basic body layout. ● Mutations are random: ○ Ie. shampoo in riding lice ○ Directed mutations is not a correct explanation (mutations are random and cannot be predicted!) ○ The Lederberg experiment: 1952, Esther and Joshua Lederberg performed an ●

experiment that helped show that many mutations are RANDOM and not directed. ■ Penicillin ■ The penicillin-resistant bacteria were in the population before they encountered penicillin. They did not evolve resistance in response to exposure to the antibiotic. Takeaways: 1. Only populations evolve, individual organisms DO NOT. 2. Natural Selection best defined as the mechanism that favors certain heritable traits and allows individuals that carry them to reproduce the most. 3. Adaptations= are traits that prove increased reproductive success 4. Mutation is always bad= FALSE.

●

Natural Selection in Action: ○ Biston Betularia (the moths example!) ■ These two moths differ by mutations at a single gene, the carbonaria allele being dominant over the typica form. ■ Industrialization in 19th century England, black form increased to very low frequencies, ■ Parallel reductions in the frequency of melanic forms ■ Most famous evidence: Bernard Kerrltewell’s release recapture experiments beginning in the 1950’s—released both light and dark moths into polluted and unpolluted woods in England

Takeaways: -simplest, fastest way for a population to regain a typica form of the population is for the A typica moth to migrate from a nearby forest that still has white peppered moth forms -selective agent (environmental factor acting on the population) that allowed the carbonaria form of the peppered moth to rise in frequency in certain parts of Britain: Industrial pollution, predatory birds, humans -We don’t know. What process led to the creation of the carbonaria—pre existing in the population of moths at a low frequency. ●

Forming New Species: ○ Speciation= lineage-splitting event that produces two or more separate species ○ Speciation event= point where genetic changes resulted in two seperate fruit fly lineages ■ Speciation can happen —> ● The scene: fruit flies laying their eggs in the mushy fruit ● Disaster strikes: hurricane washes the bananas, fruit flies emerge onto the lonely island

●

●

The populations diverge: ecological conditions are different on the island and the island population evolves under different selective pressures So we meet again: another storm reintroduces island flies to the mainland

○

●

● ●

Specification: ■ Geographic isolation: populations were prevented from interbreeding ■ Common way for the process of specification to begin: rivers change course, mountains rise, continents drift, organisms migrates ○ Reduction of gene flow: ■ In a population with no specific extrinsic barrier to gene flow Reproductive isolation: ○ Environment may impose an external barrier to reproduction, ie. river or mountain range between two incipient species ○ External barrier alone will not make them seperate ■ The evolution of different mating location, mating time, or mating rituals Lack of “fit” between sexual organs: Offspring inviability or sterility: ○ Allopatry- two populations/organisms unable to interbreed because of geographic separation

Takeaways: -When a new species originates from individuals of a pre-existing species we call this process: specification -New species is LEAST likely to form when there is high gene flow with other populations; high rates of genetic interchange between populations prevents isolation and the establishment of conditions for speciation. -Most critical step in the process of speciation: loss of the ability to interbreed with the ancestral population! ●

Macroevolution: ○ Refers to evolution above the species level ○ Macroevolutionary lens requires that we zoom out on the tree of life to assess the diversity of the entire beetle clase. ○ Ie. trends of mammals, insects, large-scale ○ Reconstruct the history of life: geology, fossils, and living organisms

Lesson 2— ● Factors Affecting Biome Type and Distribution: ○ Precipitation and temperature ■ Precipitation—deserts ■ Grasslands—seasonal precipitation ■ Tropical Rainforests—warm & receive large amounts of precipitation ■ Temperate Forests—seasonal temperatures & precipitation

○

■ Coniferous Forests—colder than deciduous forests ■ Tundra—temperature Increasing latitude with increasing altitude ■ Temperature and often precipitation decrease at increasing altitudes.

Takeaways: -Biome type is primarily determined by temperature and precipitation. -Tundra= Russia Area, Coniferous Forest= Europe Area, Desert= Mid Africa, Tropical Rainforest= Southern Africa ish -Grasslands are found in central United States and eastern Africa becuase both areas experience SIMILAR TEMPERATURE AND PRECIPITATION. -Hiking up a mountain is like traveling to the North Pole because vegetation changes as the temperature changes ●

●

●

●

●

●

Desert: can occur at any temperature, precipitation is the most limiting factor, have thin soil, highly porous, leads to high evaporation, large swings in t...