Psychology 105 Final Exam 2 Study Guide PDF

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Study Guide for all of Exam 2 of Psychology 105 taught by Dr. Noel Vest ...

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Week 5 Lecture 1 Psychology 105 September 20, 2017 Learning and Classical Conditioning Classic Conditioning Terms (p. 195) Unconditioned stimulus (UCS) - Natural stimulus that reflexively elicits a response without the need for prior learning Unconditioned response (UCR) - Unlearned, reflexive response that is elicited by an unconditioned stimulus Conditioned stimulus (CS) - Formerly neutral stimulus that acquires the capacity to elicit a reflexive response Conditioned response (CR) - Learned, reflexive response to a conditioned stimulus Learning - Enduring change in behavior or thinking that results from experience Habituation - When an organism does not respond as strongly to an event following multiple exposures to it Stimulus - Event or occurrence that generally leads to a response Three types of learning Classical conditioning - Two different stimuli are associated Operant conditioning - Connections between behaviors and consequences are made Observational learning - Learning occurs by watching and imitating others Classical Conditioning - Pavlov o Russian physiologist awarded a Nobel Prize o Discovered and was first to study Pavlovian (classical) conditioning o Animals can learn anticipatory responses o Learning could be studied in the lab o Learning by association o Influential in much of the psychological research that is conducted today - Interest in digestion and reflexive response o Meat  salivate (S)® o Metranome + meat (S + S)

o Metronome (s) Salivation ® Unconditioned Stimulus in the real world leads to an unconditioned response Dogs: Meat= unconditioned stimulus leads to salivate= unconditioned response Add neutral stimulus = metronome Metronome becomes conditioned stimulus, leads to conditioned response = salivate Kitchen Unconditioned stimulus (smell or sight of food) leads to unconditioned response = hunger pains Add neutral stimulus = kitchen Kitchen becomes conditioned stimulus, leads to hunger pains becoming a conditioned response Dog Bite Unconditioned stimulus = dog bite leads to unconditioned stimulus = frightened Add neutral stimulus = sight of dog paired with dog bite Sight of dog becomes conditioned stimulus leads to conditioned response = frightened Neutral stimulus is ALWAYS the same as conditioned stimulus Acquisition - Pairing of Conditioned stimulus and unconditioned stimulus to generate a conditioned response o Usually multiple pairings o Asymptote of conditioning response is determined y unconditioned response  Stronger unconditioned response, stronger conditioned response Factors that Affect Conditioning - Stimulus generalization o After association is forget between conditioned stimulus and conditioned response, learner often responds to similar stimuli as if they are the original CR  Ex. A dog leash could be changed for a rope - Stimulus discrimination o Ability to differentiate between a particular CS and other significantly different stimuli is stimulus discrimination - Timing o Conditioning most effective when conditioned stimulus is presented immediately before unconditioned stimulus Usually ½ second to a few seconds

Week 6 Lecture 1 Psychology 105

September 25, 2017 Evolutionary Aspects of Conditioning - Conditioned taste aversions o Demonstrates importance of natural behavior patterns influenced by evolution - John Garcia o Avoidance of a particular food that develops when an organism becomes ill after eating that food - Violates standard conditioning model o Only needs one pairing o Time between CS and UCS can be several hours Phobias Evolution and Biological Preparedness - Phobias seem to be quite selective. Extreme, irrational fears of snakes, spiders, heights, and small enclosed spaces are relatively common - Humans biologically prepared o May have once posed a threat to humans evolutionary ancestors - Because poisonous snakes, reptiles, and insects have been associated with danger and even death throughout evolution - Evolved “fear module” in the brain Operant Conditioning BF Skinner - Believed that psychology should restrict itself to studying only phenomena that could be objectively measured and verified- outwardly observable behavior and environmental events - Believed internal processes are worthless - Coined the term operant to describe any active behavior that operates upon the environment to generate consequences - Invented the skinner box Operant Conditioning - Future probability of behavior is affected by its consequences o Three components to operant conditioning:  Antecedent- an event preceding behavior  Behavior- operant  Consequence- strengthens or weakens future behavior - It is the consequence that changes the behavior - Examples o Speeding ticket o Throwing a ball for your dog o Child in a toy store begs for toy and throws tantrum gets toy Categories of Reinforcement - Positive reinforcement

o Response is followed by the addition of a reinforcing stimulus, increasing the likelihood that the response will be repeated in similar situations - Negative reinforcement o Response results in the removal of, avoidance of, or escape from a punishing stimulus, increasing the likelihood that response will be repeated in similar situations Reinforcement - Two forms of reinforcing stimuli o Primary reinforcer  Satisfies a biological need  Food, water, and other biological necessities o Secondary reinforcer  Acquired reinforcing value by being associated with a primary reinforcer  Money, awards, airline miles, college degrees (resources) Categories of Punishment - Positive punishment o The addition of something unpleasant following an unwanted behavior, with the intention of decreasing that behavior  Ex. Spanking after wetting pants - Negative punishment o Removal of something desirable following an unwanted behavior, with the intention of decreasing that behavior  Ex. Reward after successfully using toilet Punishment - The process in which a behavior is followed by an aversive consequence that decreases the likelihood of behavior being repeated - Many people confuse punishment and negative reinforcement Process Positive punishment Negative reinforcement

As a result of a behavior, was something…

Operant or Behavior Wearing a warm but unstylish flannel shirt Wearing a warm but unstylish flannel shirt

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Operant Conditioning Terms

Consequence Effect on Behavior Friend makes a Decrease wearing hurtful comment shirt in future Avoid feeling cold Increase wearing the and uncomfortable all shirt in the future day

What happens to the behavior in the future? Increases Decreases Positive reinforcement Positive punishment Negative reinforcement Negative punishment

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Discriminative stimulus (antecedent) o Stimulus in the presence of which a particular response will be reinforced Acquisition o An asset or object bought or obtained o The learning or development of a skill, habit, or quality Shaping o Have a great influence on Extinction o The disappearance of previously learned behavior when the behavior is not reinforced Continuous reinforcement o An operant conditioning principle in which an organism is reinforced every single time that the organism provides the appropriate operant response Partial reinforcement effect

Week 6 Lecture 2 Psychology 105 September 27, 2017 Schedules of Reinforcement - Skinner (1956) found that specific preset arrangements of partial reinforcement produced different patterns and rates of responding (schedules of reinforcement) o Fixed ratio (FR) schedule o Variable ratio (VR) schedule o Fixed-interval (FI) schedule o Variable interval (VI) schedule - Fixed-ratio schedules o Reinforce behavior after a set number of responses (every so many) o Produces high rates of responding o Ex. Starbucks reward card - Variable-ratio schedules o Reinforce behavior after an unpredictable number of responses o Produces high rates of responding o Ex. Slot machine - Fixed-interval schedules o Reinforce first response after a fixed period of time (every so often) o Produces choppy, stop-start pattern of responding o Ex. Amount of time studying for a test - Variable-interval schedules o Reinforce the first response after varying time intervals (unpredictably often) o Produces moderate, steady responding

o Ex. Checking phone Questions to ask yourself - Is the schedule fixed or interval? o Is the reinforcer available on a predictable or unpredictable basis? - Is the schedule interval or ratio? o Is the reinforcer delivered because of work, effort, or time? Week 7 Lecture 1 Psychology 105 October 2, 2017 Contemporary Operant Conditioning Cognitive Maps in Rats and Men (1947) - Cognitive map - View of behaviorism is that we only learn when being rewarded or punished - Three sets of rats o No rewards o Rewarded o No reward until day 11 of trial Latent Learning - Very important finding at the time - We are constantly learning - May be out of our own consciousness - Latent learning - Rats were learning the entire time but not until it became beneficial did they use the information Focus on Addiction - We talked previously about denial - Many forms of denial (simple, blaming, rationalization, etc.) - Opposite of denial o Acceptance o True acceptance - Average person attends substance abuse treatment (SUD) treatment 4 times - How does this relate to mice and men study? Observational Learning Contagious behavior - More or less instinctual or reflexive behavior which is triggered by the occurrence in another person/animal Observational Learning - Albert Bandura o The Bobo Doll Study

o Contends that most human behavior is acquired through observational learning o Bandura demonstrated the influence of observational learning in a series of experiments conducted in the early 1960s. Children watching a violent video clip seemed to imitate aggressive behavior o Demonstrated the principle that expectation of reinforcement (by watching someone being rewarded) can act to reinforce a behavior - Stop and think… does exposure to media violence cause aggression? o Correlation between media aggression and violence is overwhelming  Almost as high as the correlation between smoking and lung cancer  Correlated to antisocial personality disorder and aggression 10 years later  Bidirectional  More violent tends to seek out violent media  Watching violence tends to lead to being more aggressive o Dependent variable: aggression shown by child o Independent variable: whether or not the adult was awarded for the behavior or not Learned Helplessness (info not in chapter) - Seligman began career studying learned helplessness in dogs and later in humans - Applied his findings to depression o Overcome feelings of helplessness, habitual pessimism, and depression - Most interesting findings in domestic abuse o Why doesn’t he/she just leave? o Abuse victim comes to believe that negative events are uncontrollable and a form of learning helplessness sets in. Become less likely to leave in the future  Tension building  battering incident  calm respite  tension building Learned Helplessness in Academics - “Students who are repeatedly exposed to school failure are particularly at risk for the development of learned helplessness” (Sutherland and Singh, 2004) o Signs of learned helplessness  Negative or degrading comments  Avoids hard assignments  Gives up easily  Does not take pride in academic achievements o Process can be self-affirming o What can be done? Implicit Theories of Intelligence Predict Achievement (Blackwell, Trzesniewski, and Dweck, 2007) - Incremental theory: think of intelligence as a malleable quality that can be developed o Belief that ability can be developed through their efforts - Entity theory: belief that intelligence is more of an unchangeable, fixed entity, a thing that you either have a lot of or have a little of

o Orients them toward measuring the ability and giving up or withdrawing effort if the verdict seems negative Week 7 Lecture 2 Psychology 105 October 4, 2017 Memory Memory: refers to information the brain receives, stores, and may retrieve for later use What is Memory? - Three major processes and a thought to be minor process o Encoding: transforming information into a form that be entered and retained by memory system o Storage: retaining information in memory so that I can be used at a later time o Retrieval: recovering stored information for conscious awareness o Reconsolidation: back into long-term memory o Sensory memory short term (working) memory Long term memory Sensory Memory - Lasts less than three seconds - Used to perceive the world around us as continuous rather than as a series of disconnected visual images or disjointed sounds - Not transferred to short term memory and therefore forgotten Short Term/Working Memory - Provides temporary storage for information transferred from sensory and long-term memory - Duration: about 30 seconds - Capacity o The magical number seven plus or minus two - Chunking o Storing related items together Long Term Memory - Provides storage for information for extended period of time - Duration: longer than 30 seconds, has limitless storage capacity - Involves quick retrieval with little effort - Encoding o Elaborate rehearsal, self-reference effect, visual imagery

Long Term Memory

Explicit Memory: memories you are aware of

Implicit memories: memories outside of awareness

Semantic memory: general facts

Procedural memory: how to perform actions

Episodic memory: personal experiences

Other types of implicit memory

Implicit and Explicit Memory: Two systems of LTM - Explicit memory (declarative memory) with awareness o Two types  Episodic information- information about events  Semantic information- information about facts - Implicit memory (non-declarative memory) without awareness o Behavior or task performance but cannot be consciously recollected o Motor skills, action The Organization of Information in Long-Term Memory - Clustering o Poorer recall occurs with random presentation o Related items are clustered together to form higher-order categories - Mnemonics o Help us translate information into a form that is easier to remember Testing Retrieval - Recognition o Identifying correct information from a series of possible choices - Recall o Retrieving memories without cues; also termed free recall - Cued recall o Remembering an item of information in response to a retrieval cue Importance of Retrieval Cues - Ability to retrieve stored memory hinges on retrieval cue o Retrieval o Retrieval cue

o Retrieval cue failure - Massed practice o Cramming - Distributed practice o Separating study or practice sessions - Encoding specificity effect o Context matters The Serial Position Effect - The tendency to remember items at the beginning and end of a list better than items in the middle o Primacy effect: the tendency to recall the first items in a list o Recency effect: the tendency to recall the final items in a list Flashbulb Memories - The recall of very specific details or images surrounding a significant, rate, or vivid event Forgetting - Ebbinghaus o First began to study forgetting by using nonsense syllables like ROH, LEZ, SUW, QOV, XAR, KUF, BIW, CUL, TIX, QAP, WEJ, ZOD o Much of what we forget is lost relatively soon after we originally learn it o How quickly we forget material depends on how well the material was encoded  How meaningful the material was  How often it was rehearsed Why Do We Forget? - Common reason for forgetting occurs when info is not encoded into long term memory (encoding failure) o Absentmindedness - Failure to remember what needs to be done in the future involves a prospective memory error o Retrieval cue failure - Decay Theory o When a new memory is formed, it creates a distinct structural or chemical change in the brain (memory trace) o Memory traces fade away over time as a matter of normal brain processes Interference Theory - Memories interfering with memories - Caused by one memory competing with or replacing another memory - Two types of interference o Retroactive interference: a NEW memory interferes with remembering OLD information o Proactive interference: an OLD memory interferes with remembering NEW information

The Stage Model of Memory

Sensory Memory Envornmental information is registered large capacity for information duration: 1/4 to 3 seconds

Attention

Short Term (Working) Mem New information is transferred from sensory memory Old information is retrieved from long term memory limited capacity for information Durration: approx 20 seconds

Long Term Memory Encoding and Storage

Retrieval

INformation that has been encoded in short term memory is stored Unlimited capacity for informatino Duration: potentially permanent

Imperfect Memories - Elizabeth Loftus asked: o How fast were the cars going when they hit each other? o How fast were the cars going when they smashed into each other? - The reported recall of the rate of speed depended on how the question was asked Imperfect Memories - Misinformation effect o Memories can be changed in response to new information o Eyewitness accounts can be altered by factors that follow - Eyewitness Testimony o Recall is not an exact replica of original events o Recall is a construction built and rebuilt from various sources o Often fit memories into existing beliefs or schemas Schemas, Scripts, and Memory Distortions - Can the knowledge people had before an event occurred influence their later memory of the event? o Schemas: organize clusters of knowledge and information about particular topics o Scripts: schemas that involve typical sequence of actions and behaviors at a common event o False memories: created for actions that would have been consistent with a script. Brain Structures Involved in Memory - Memory is a complex system involving multiple structures and regions of the brain. - Memory is formed, processed, and stored throughout the brain, and different types of memory have different paths.

o Prefrontal cortex: working memory essential for retrieval o Cerebral cortex: memory storage distributed throughout o Auditory cortex: auditory memory storage o Temporal lobes: spatial memory storage o Visual cortex: visual memory storage o Hippocampus: memory consolidation o Cerebellum: implicit memory formation o Hippocampus: explicit memory formation o Amygdala: implicit memory formation, emotional memory formation The Nun Study - Almost 700 nuns o Evaluated yearly until death o Donated brains - Interested in earlier life events/circumstances that relate to Alzheimers - The sample o All women o Similar lives  Reproductive histories, structure, religion, social relationships - The data o Archives: school transcripts, written autobiographies, parents SES, health records Sister Matthia - Joined convent at 15 - Taught elementary school for 62 years - “Gold Standard of Aging” - Died at 105 o Dementia free o Brain weighed 1170 grams o Stage 4 Alzheimers (moderate) The Nun Study: Findings - Oral health: fewer teeth predicted dementia symptoms - Data contributed to our definition of healthy aging - Neurofibulary tangles (used to diagnose Alzheimers post-mortem) present with no symptoms? - Autobiographies written at age 22 o Idea density (linguistic ability): High= related to higher functioning, low=lower brain weight, cerebral atrophy, Alzheimers diagnosis - Theory development o Create a theory to diagnose Alzheimer’s and then use the brains to see if they can accurately predict - Word recall: loss of hippocampal volume correlated with delayed recall - Cognitive reserve: brain resisting expressing symptoms in the face of existing neuropathology

Alzheimer’s Disease - Progressive, devastating brain illness that causes cognitive decline, including memory, language, and thinking problems o Eurofibrillary tangles o Beta-amyloid plaques - Symptoms of Alzheimer’s can be reduced with physical and intellectual activity 1 in 8 over 65 yr Week 7 Lecture 3 Psychology 105 October 6th, 2017 Cognition and Thinking Cognit...