Developmental Psychology - EXAM 2 Study Guide PDF

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Developmental Psychology
Professor Lisa Weisman-Davlantes...

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Vanna Nguyen Psych 361 MWF 10:00am–10:50am Psych. 361 – Exam #2 Review Chapter 5:  Definitions: assimilation, accommodation o Assimilation = using current schemes to interpret external world  “Comfortable ideas” o Accommodation = Adjusting old schemes, or creating new ones to better fit the environment  “We change when we are in pain”  Piaget’s sensorimotor stage: age range and major accomplishments o Birth – age 2 o Problem solving, anticipate events o Building schemas through sensory and motor exploration, mental representation.  Definitions: circular reaction, object permanence o Circular reactions:  Building schemas by repeating chance events caused by baby’s own activity.  Chance activity becomes purposeful behavior  Ex.) A child may suck his or her thumb by accident and then later intentionally repeat the action. These actions are repeated because the infant finds them pleasurable. o Object performance  Ability to find hidden objects  Demonstrates understanding that objects still exist when they are out of sight  Improving control of the body and mind – imitation – mental representation – deferred imitation – make believe play  Main ideas of core knowledge perspective o Evolutionary perspective: infants have innate, special purpose knowledge systems called core domains of thought  Physical, numerical, linguistic, psychological, biological o Prepares us to rapidly develop key aspects of cognition o Development is domain specific – each domain develops independently depending on experience  Children as naïve theorist (theory-theory): constant questioning, testing, trial and error, learn from experience  Information processing (IP)

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o Main goal: uncovering mechanism of change; how we detect, transform, store, access, modify info  Focus on what people of different ages do when faced with a task or problem Central executive  Conscious part of mind  Directs flow of information  Coordinates incoming info with pre-existing information Automatic processes  Require no space in working memory  Occurs outside of awareness  Unintentional, involuntary, and effortless Vygotsky: describe zone of proximal development o Tasks too difficult for child to do alone but possible with help  Scaffolding – In ZPD, assisting child with difficult task until mastered Bayley Scales 1. The Cognitive Scale = items as attention to familiar and unfamiliar objects, looking for fallen object, and pretend play. 2. The Language Scale = assesses understanding and expression of language. a. Ex.) recognition of objects and people, following simple directions, and naming objects and pictures. 3. The Motor Scale = includes gross and fine motor skills; such as grasping, sitting, stacking blocks, and climbing stairs. 4. The Social-Emotional Scale = asks caregivers about such behaviors as ease of calming, social responsiveness, and imitation in play. 5. The Adaptive Behavior Scale = asks about adaptation on the demands of daily life, including communication, self-control, following the rules, and getting along with others.  Measures: early language, cognition, and social behavior  Screening—helping to identify for further observation and intervention babies who are likely to have developmental problems  Predictability of future success - Predicts later intelligence poorly - Toddlers might become distracted, fatigued, or bored during testing o Intelligence Quotient (IQ)  Indicates the extent to which the raw score deviates from the typical performance of same age individuals. Language Development: Chomsky (Nativist) vs. Interactionist perspectives o Chomsky (nativist)

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Language acquisition device (LAD)  Contains universal grammar  Infants biologically prepared to learn language o Interactionist perspective  Interactions between inner capacities and environment influences  Social interactionist view – emphasizes social skills and language experience  Describe language milestones: o Cooing – vowel sounds (~ 2 months) o Babbling – “bababdada” (~ 6 months) o Joint attention – child and adult attend to same objects and adult labels objects for child (~ 11 months) o Under-extension – using a word for only one object (~12-18 months)  “car” only refers to hot wheels, not dad’s truck o Overextension – using a word to describe many objects (~ 12-30 months)  “car” could also mean bus, fire engine, truck o Telegraphic speech – 2 word combinations that leave out less important words  “Go car” or “Want cookie”  Infant-directed speech (aka motherese): o The innate need to speak to infants in a high pitch / slowly / emphasized certain words o Example: When infants begin babbling – “dadadada” and parents will emphasize saying “DADA” in hopes that the child will imitate the same. They will do so in a high pitch and even slowly manner in order to emphasize to the child. Chapter 7  Piaget’s preoperational stage: o Age 2-7 o Main accomplishment: gains mental representation --- make believe play and deferred imitation o Problem solving, coping and social skills, empathy, reasoning, creativity and imagination.  *Development of make-believe play o Up to age 2: real life situations / objects, centered on self.  Playing doctor / Using toy phone as real phone o Age 2-4: objects are used as symbols, centered on others  Child as doctor helping others / using a block as a phone o With age: make believe detaches from real life conditions  Becomes less self-centered – Becomes more complex  *Benefits of make-believe play

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o Contributes to cognitive, social and coping skills o Strengthens mental abilities such as:  Sustained attention  Problem solving  Memory  Language and literacy  Regulation of emotions  Perspective of taking  Paying attention to how their behavior affect them and others Egocentrism = focus one own view’s / needs, ignores others. o Self as centered of the universe, does not realize that others may have different ideas and/or feelings. Animistic thinking = belief that inanimate objects have lifelike qualities such as: feelings and thoughts Magical thinking = belief that thinking about something will make it come true Vygotsky: ideas about importance of make-believe play o Strengthens ability to think before acting = impulse control – understand social norms, culture Private speech = seen as a foundation for all higher cognitive process – helps with organization and planning o Used for self-guidance in MB play, problem solving, and thinking out loud o Gradually leads to internal dialogue Scaffolding o Temporary support to help child learn.  Someone of experience shows how to do something to the less experienced person. Metacognition o Construct a theory of mind, or coherent set of ideas about mental activities. o Children reflect on their own thought processes  “Thinking about thought” o Ex.) By age 3, children realize that thinking takes place inside their heads and that a person can think about something without seeing, touching, or talking about it. Emergent literacy o Active efforts to construct literacy knowledge through informal experiences o Ex.) preschoolers search for units of written language as they “read” memorized versions of stories and recognize familiar signs (“pizza”). Language development o Fast-mapping = connecting new words with ideas after brief exposure.  Ability to quickly learn new words with very little exposure.  “Gardener” becomes “Plant man”

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o Over-regularization – learning to use correct grammar / structure  “My two-foot hurt” or “My dog eated my food” Recasts = reconstructing inaccurate speech into correct forms. Expansions = elaborating on children’s speech, increasing its complexity

Chapter 8  Erikson: Initiative vs. Guilt – kids’ response when parents criticize their worth/performance? o Initiative (Healthy)  New sense of purposefulness  Eagerness to try new activities and join activities  Play permits trying out new skills  Strides in conscience development o Guilt  Overly strict superego or conscience, causing too much guilt  Less make-believe play  Related to parental: threats, criticism, and punishment  Self-concept: o Set of attributes, abilities, attitudes, and values that we believe define who we are. o Observable characteristics: appearance, possessions, and behavior o Emotions/attitudes = “I like” or “I don’t like” o Ideal vs. real self = “I’m great at basketball”  Difference between self-esteem and self-concept o Self-esteem = judgement we make about our own worth, along with associated feelings  Influences:  Everyday experiences  Parental attitudes / expectations  Difficulty distinguishing own competence  Overestimate ability, under-estimate task difficult o Self-concept = set of attributes, abilities, attitudes, and values that we believe define who we are  Preschooler’s self-concept is more concrete; usually observable characteristics, such as their name, physical appearances, possessions, and everyday behavior.  Emotional development: o Understanding emotion = early preschool; children refer to causes, consequences, and behavioral signs of emotion—understandings that increase in accuracy and complexity  Emphasize external factors over internal states

 Ex.) “He’s happy because he swings very high”  Kid’s whose parents talk about emotions are better able to judge other’s emotions o Self-regulation = verbalize a variety of strategies for adjusting their emotional arousal to a more comfortable level  blocking sensory inputs  talking to themselves  changing their goals  How parents help and hinder these areas of growth o Help  warm, patient parents who explain strategies for controlling feelings helps child’s capacity to handle stress o Hinder  parents rarely express positive emotion, dismiss children’s feelings as unimportant, and have difficult controlling their own anger  Sympathy vs. empathy o Sympathy = feeling concern or sorrow for another’s problem o Empathy = feeling the same or similar emotions as another  Moral Development: o Morality = conformity to rules of right conduct  Begins to develop around age 1 with start of parental discipline o 3 components  1.) evaluation of “good” vs. “bad”  2.) empathy for others  3.) sharing, cooperating with others  Psychoanalytic Theory– Freud o Inductive discipline/parenting = teaching child how his or her behavior affects others:  Teaches us how to behave  Helps develop empathy  Teaches reason to keep or change behavior  Encourage commitment to moral standards  Social Learning Theory – Skinner and Bandura; describe terms below o Operant conditioning  Rewards and punishment o Modeling  Observing/imitating others; role models o Punishment  Effective punishment includes limit-setting and a way to make amends for poor behavior (life lessons)  Cognitive-Developmental Theory – Piaget and Kohlberg

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o moral imperatives = kids actively think about social rules  Protect people’s rights and welfare from two other types of action: o Social conventions = customs determined solely by consensus, such as table manners. o Personal choice = no not violate rights, are not socially regulated, and are up to the individual, such as choice of friends and color of clothing Types of aggression o Proactive (instrumental)  Helps child get something he or she wants. o Reactive (hostile)  Meant to hurt someone; defense response  3 forms – physical, verbal, and relational Gender differences and aggression o Gender typing:  Association of objects, activities, roles, or traits with one sex or the other in ways that conform to cultural stereotypes.  Preschoolers associate toys, clothes, household items, occupation, behavior, and more with gender.  By age 3 – kids know what gender they are o Describe theories of gender identity:  Social learning = gender-typed behavior leads to gender identity  Cognitive-developmental = self-perceptions (gender constancy) precedes gender type behavior.  Gender schema = combines #1 and #2  Includes gender linked experience and preferences of others, as well as kids own perception of self. o Gender constancy  By age 6 – gender as permanent regardless or appearance or behavior. Child maltreatment: o Types  Physical abuse = assaults resulting in physical injury.  Sexual abuse = fondling, intercourse, pornography, and other forms.  Neglect = failing to meet children’s basic needs.  Emotional abuse = social isolation, unreasonable demands, humiliation, intimidation, and other forms. o Perpetrators  have a history of abuse as a child  inept at handling discipline confrontations  believe in harsh physical disciple  mentally disturbed

o Types of kids at risk for abuse  children whose characteristics make them more of a challenge to rear are at increased risk for abuse Chapter 9  Childhood obesity o Causes  Overweight parents  Low social economic status  Parental feeding practices  Overfeeding  Overly controlling  Insufficient sleep  Low physical activity  Television  Eating out

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o Health risks  Physical symptoms:  High blood pressure, cholesterol, respiratory problems, insulin resistance  Lifelong problems:  Heart disease, diabetes, gall bladder disease, cancer, and early death. Piaget’s concrete operational stage: age range and major accomplishments o Major turning point in cognitive development. o Thought more adult-like: logical, flexible, organized. o Full understanding of conservation, classification, collect things, separated into sub classes. o Seriation—arranging items by length, weight, size, physically and mentally (transitive inference) Gains in information processing (IP): o Information processing speed = improved working memory function o Attention: selective, adaptable, planning o Flexible memory strategy use: rehearsal, organization, elaboration o Cognitive self-regulation o Memory capacity = greater efficiency contributes to more complex, effective thinking because a faster thinker can hold on to and operate on more information in working memory  Unlimited o Processing speed = time needed to process information on a wide variety of cognitive tasks declines rapidly between 6 and 12

 Possibly due to myelination and synaptic pruning in the brain  Cognitive self-regulation: *Define/describe o Process of continuously monitoring progress toward a goal, checking outcomes, and redirecting unsuccessful efforts o From elementary to middle school, CSR predicts academic success *How can adults assist with cognitive self-regulation? o Pointing out important features of tasks o Suggesting effective learning strategies o Emphasizing self-monitoring o Assisting kids with frustration tolerance  ADHD: Inattention, impulsivity, and excessive motor activity resulting in academic and social problems o Population  3-5% of school-age children  boys = 3-9 times more than girls o Symptoms  Inattention  Impulsivity  Excessive motor activity  Low IQ scores, but normal intelligence  Results in:  Academic problems, social problems, lowered self-esteem  *Info. on typical IQs of ADHD kids o Children with ADHD score 7-15 points lower than other children on IQ tests  Because of their difficulty concentrating.  Purpose of the Wechsler and Stanford-Binet tests o Identifies high intelligence as well as learning problems o Stanford-Binet:  First to use the term IQ.  Measures crystallized and fluid intelligence for ages 2-23 o Wechsler Test:  Measures general intelligence using 2 broad factors:  Verbal and performance skills  Variety of tests for ages 3-adulthood.  More focus on fluid intelligence  Intelligence theories: o Sternberg – types  Intelligence = IP skills, prior experience, culture  Analytical = strategies, self-regulation (school)

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o Creative = problem-solving (experience) o Practical = adaptation, application of skills (common sense or “street smarts”) Gardner – types o 8 independent intelligences (“frames of mind”) 1. language 2. logic/math 3. musical, 4. spatial 5. naturalist 6. bodily kinesthetic 7. intrapersonal 8. interpersonal o Explains strong skills in some areas but not others  Ex.) Autism, Great athlete but poor student, Gate student but poor social skills Benefits of bilingual education o Do better than others on tests of selective attention, analytical reasoning, concept formation, and cognitive flexibility o Advance in language awareness, such as detection of errors in grammar and meaning o Transfer their phonological awareness skills in on language to the other...