Psychology Final Exam Study Guide PDF

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Study guide chapters 1-8 for intro to psychology...

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Psychology Final Exam Study Guide Chapter 1 (1 question) ❏ Psychology - scientific study of behavior & mental processes. ❏ 4 basic goals: describe, explain, predict, and control/influence behavior & mental pro. ❏ Aristotle - Greek Philosopher - sleep, dreams, the senses, & memory. ❏ Descartes - French Phil. - interactive dualism (mind & body = separate) ❏ William Wundt - founder of psych - defined psych as the study of consciousness. ❏ Edward b Titchener - structuralism ❏ William James - functionalism ❏ Sigmund Freud - psychoanalysis ❏ John B Watson, Ivan Pavlov, and B.F. Skinner - behaviorism ❏ Carl Rogers - humanistic psych Chapters 2 & 3 (1 quest. each) ❏ Biological Psychology ❏ Neuroscience - scientific study of nervous system ❏ Neurons - communication center ❏ Sensory neurons - convey info (organs & skin) ❏ Motor neurons - communicate info to muscles & glands ❏ Interneurons - communicate info between neurons ❏ Most common neuron in human nervous system ❏ Cell body - (soma) contains nucleus ❏ Dendrites - receives info from neurons/cells ❏ Axon - carries info from neuron to neuron ❏ Sensation - detection & basic sensory experience of environmental stimuli like sounds, objects & odors. ❏ Perception - when we integrate, organize, and interpret sensory info in a meaningful way. ❏ Wavelength - distance from one peak to another ❏ Cornea - clear membrane covering front of eye ❏ Pupil - black opening ❏ Iris - colored structure ❏ Lens - transparent structure behind pupil ❏ Retina - thin, light sensitive membrane @ back of the eye, contains rods & cons. Chapter 4 (2 quest.) ❏ Sleep ❏ NREM sleep - slow activity, four stages ❏ REM sleep - heightened body & brain activity ❏ Sleep disorders ❏ Insomnia - inability to fall & stay asleep ❏ Sleep apnea - sleeper repeatedly stops breathing

❏ Narcolepsy - daytime sleepiness & lapses of sleep throughout day ❏ Sleep attacks too ❏ Sleep terrors - intense fear & panic, typically no recall in the morning ❏ Sleepwalking - walking during stages 3&4 of NREM sleep Chapter 5 (6 quest.) ❏ Conditioning - process of learning associations between environmental events & behavioral responses. ❏ Ivan Pavlov - Russian Physiologist - first described the basic process of classic conditioning. ❏ Behaviorism - rejects the methods of introspection & study of consciousness. ❏ John B. Watson - American Psych. ❏ Operant conditioning - learning is a process in which behavior is shaped/maintained by its consequences. ❏ Reinforcement - when stimulus follows an operant & increases likelihood of repetition. ❏ Pos (+) reinforcement - addition → treat when dog “goes” outside ❏ Neg (-) reinforcement - taking away → alarm = annoying noise, repeatedly turning it off ❏ Conditioned response (cr) - learned & reflexive response to cs. ❏ Conditioned stimulus (cs) - formerly neutral stimulus that acquires a cr. ❏ Discriminative stimulus - response is more likely to be reinforced. ❏ Extinction - gradual disappearance of conditioned behavior. ❏ Classical cond. - when cs is present without ucs. (unconditioned stimulus - natural response) ❏ Operant cond. - when emitted behavior is no longer followed by a reinforcer. ❏ Fixed interval schedule - reinforcer delivered for the first response emitted after preset time interval has elapsed. ❏ Fixed ratio sched. - reinforcer occurs after a fixed # of responses. ❏ Variable ratio sched. - reinforcer occurs average amount of time elapsed. Intervals varies from trial to trial. Chapter 6 (6 questions) ❏ Memory - mental processes that enable us to return & use info over time. ❏ Encoding - process of transformation info to be retained by the memory system. ❏ Storage - process of retaining info in memory so it can be used later. ❏ Retrieval - recovering stored info ❏ Sensory memory - first stage, register great deal of info from environment & holds it for ¼ - 3 seconds. ❏ Short term memory - active/working memory, info stored for 20 seconds ❏ Long term memory - 3rd stage of memory represents the long-term storage of info ❏ Misinformation effect- existing memories can be altered if you are exposed to misleading info

Chapter 7 (3 questions) ❏ Cognition - mental activities using knowledge ❏ Mental image - mental representation of objects/events that aren’t physically present ❏ Concept - mental category of objects, events, or situations that share similar features. ❏ Formal - mental category (mc) formed by learning rules that define it. ❏ Natural - mc formed as a result of everyday experience. ❏ Prototype - most typical instance of a particular concept. ❏ Insight - sudden realization of problem solved ❏ Intuition - coming to a conclusion/making a judgement without conscious awareness. ❏ Algorithm - problem solving strategy involving following “rules” to correct solution ❏ Aptitude test - test for person’s capacity to benefit from education/training ❏ Exemplars - individual instances of a concept/category, held in memory Chapter 8 (4 questions) ❏ Motivation - the biological, emotional, cognitive, or social forces that activate and direct behavior. ❏ Activation - the initiation or production of behavior. ❏ Persistence - the determination to achieve a particular goal, often in the face of obstacles. ❏ Intensity- the greater vigor of responding that usually accompanies motivated behavior. ❏ Emotion - is a psychological state involving: subjective experience, a physiological response, and a behavioral or expressive compone ❏ Instinct theories - at certain human behaviors are innate and due to evolutionary programming. ❏ Drive theories - behavior is motivated by the desire to reduce internal tension such as hunger and thirst. ❏ Homeostasis - the body monitors/maintains constant levels of internal states, such as body temperature, fluid levels, and energy supplies. ❏ Incentive theories - behavior is motivated by the “pull” of external goals, such as rewards, money, or recognition. ❏ Arousal theory - the view that people are motivated to maintain an optimal level of arousal, one that is neither too high nor too low. ❏ Sensation seeking - is the degree to which an individual is motivated to experience high levels of sensory and physical arousal. ❏ Hunger and Eating ❏ Basal metabolic rate (BMR)- is the rate at which the body, when at rest, uses energy for vital functions, such as heartbeat and respiration

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❏ Glucose - (blood sugar) provides the main source of energy. In the liver, glucose is converted to and stored as glycogen. ❏ Adipose tissue - (body fat) is the main source of stored, or reserve, energy. ❏ Energy homeostasis - the long-term matching of food intake to energy expenditure, helps you maintain your baseline body weight. ❏ Ghrelin - (“hunger hormone”), which is primarily manufactured by cells lining the stomach, is also involved in the short-term regulation of eating behavior. Long-Term Signals That Regulate Body Weight ❏ Leptin - a hormone secreted by the body’s adipose tissue into the bloodstream. ❏ Insulin - secreted by the pancreas, helps control blood levels of glucose and promotes the uptake of glucose by the muscles and other body tissues. It also helps in regulating eating behavior and maintaining a stable body weight. ❏ Neuropeptide Y (NPY) - during periods of negative energy balance and weight loss, NPY triggers eating behavior, reduces body metabolism, and promotes fat storage. Body mass index (BMI) - provides a single numerical value that represents adult weight in relation to height. ❏ More than 1/3 of adult Americans are considered overweight. Psychological needs as motivators ❏ Intrinsic motivation - the desire to engage in tasks that the person finds inherently satisfying and enjoyable, novel, or optimally challenging. ❏ Extrinsic motivation - consists of external factors or influences on behavior, such as rewards, social evaluations, rules, and responsibilities. ❏ Competence motivation - the desire to direct one’s behavior toward demonstrating ❏ competence and exercising control in a situation. ❏ Achievement motivation is the desire to direct one’s behavior toward excelling, succeeding, or outperforming others at some task ❏ Thematic Apperception Test (TAT) - a projective test that requires the person to create stories about ambiguous pictures. Emotion ❏ Amygdala - an almond-shaped cluster of neurons in the limbic system in the brain’s temporal lobe, is a key brain structure in the emotional response of fear in humans. ❏ Anthropomorphism ❏ is the attribution of human traits, motives, emotions, or behaviors to ❏ nonhuman animals or inanimate objects. James–Lange theory - holds that emotions arise from the perception of body changes. ❏ James believed that emotion followed this sequence: ❏ We perceive a stimulus; ❏ physiological and behavioral changes occur, which ❏ we experience as a particular emotion

❏ American psychologist William James and Danish psychologist Carl Lange ❏ Two-factor theory of emotion - Stanley Schachter and Jerome Singer’s theory that emotion is the result of the interaction of physiological arousal and the cognitive label that we use to explain the arousal. ❏ The cognitive appraisal theory of emotion - developed by Craig Smith and Richard Lazarus, asserts that emotions result from the cognitive appraisal of a situation’s effect on personal well-being....