Psychology Final Exam study guide PDF

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Intro Psych Final Exam Study Guide I.

Memory a. Memory Process Overview

i. b. Techniques to Enhance Encoding & Retrieval i. Enhancing encoding process 1. Spacing effect a. Information is better retained when our rehearsal is distributed 2. Chunking a. We more easily recall information when we can organize it into meaningful units 3. Mnemonics a. Pictures: Words that lend themselves to pictures/images are more easily remembered compared to abstract words b. Hierarchies: word sorted into hierarchies 4. Semantic encoding a. (meaning of words) yields the best memory of verbal information compared to visual (the appearance of the letters) or acoustic (the sound of the words) encoding 5. Self-reference effect a. We have excellent recall for information we can relate to ourselves ii. Enhancing retrieval process 1. Serial position effect a. The last and first items are remembered best 2. Retrieval cues a. Help us recall information b. is particularly effective if it helps recreate the conditions in which the information was originally encoded c. Types of Long-Term Memory

II.

i. Development a. Strange-Situation Test & Types of Attachment i. Strange Situation Test

1. ii. Types of attachment 1. Secure (60-70%) a. Active exploration b. Safe base c. Upset when caregiver leaves d. Caregiver effectively comforts e. Parental predictors i. Care is consistent and responsive ii. Meets child’s needs iii. Caregiver is ‘in tune’ with the child 2. Avoidant (15-20%) a. Active exploration b. Little sharing with caregiver c. Not upset when caregiver leaves d. Ignores caregiver on reunion e. Parental predictors i. Caregiver does not meet child’s needs ii. Caregiver may reject child’s advances

3. Anxious (insecure-ambivalent/resistant) (10-15%) a. Clingy with caregiver b. Little sharing with caregiver c. Very upset when caregiver leaves d. Clings to caregiver on reunion but is not soothed e. Parental predictors i. Inconsistent caregiver ii. Caregiver is slow to respond to infant needs 4. Disorganized (insecure) (5%) a. Infant does virtually no exploration b. May show odd, disorganized behavior problems c. Approaches and withdraws from caregiver d. Parental predictors i. Abusive and inconsistent parenting b. Parenting Styles & Associated Children’s Behavior i. Authoritarian 1. Low warmth/high control 2. Child: poor academics, low self-esteem, peer rejection ii. Authoritative 1. High warmth/ high control 2. Child: friendly, happy, cooperative iii. Permissive 1. High warmth/ low control 2. Child: impulsive, out of control, aggressive iv. Negligent 1. Low warmth/ low control 2. Child: sexual promiscuity, antisocial, depression, substance abuse c. Cognitive Abilities Gained at Each Stage

i.

III.

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V.

Language & Reasoning a. Brain Areas Critical to Language i. Damage to Broca’s aphasia area 1. Trouble speaking words ii. Damage to Wernicke’s aphasia area 1. Trouble understanding meaning of words (speaks nonsense) b. LAD vs. LASS Heuristics that Bias Decision Making i. LAD 1. Language acquisition device a. an instinctive mental capacity which enables an infant to acquire and produce language ii. LASS 1. Language acquisition support system a. refers to the idea proposed by Bruner that adults and older children have learning devices that interact with children's Language acquisition devices Social a. Cognitive Dissonance i. Cognitive dissonance is a state of tension that arises when people perceive that their attitudes do not match their behavior. ii. Either: 1. Change behavior to match attitude 2. Change attitude to match behavior 3. adopt a new attitude to justify the behvior b. Stereotype Threat i. Stereotypes about certain groups create feelings of vulnerability in those groups (fear of confirming stereotype) 1. Happens even if group members don’t believe the stereotype 2. happens when the individual cares about his/her ability and the test is difficult c. Factors that Increase Conformity & Obedience i. Emotional distance of the victim ii. Closeness and legitimacy of the authority iii. Institutional authority iv. Group influence Personality a. Self-Serving Bias i. Tendency to attribute failure/bad events to external circumstances, and success/good events to oneself. b. Components of Each Theory of Personality & their Criticisms i. Humanistic theory 1. Proposed by Maslow & Rogers and emphasized the ways people strive for self-actualization

VI.

2. Person-centered approach that focuses on conscious motivations (who are you vs. who do you want to be) 3. Evaluation through a rich narrative 4. Psychologists provides a growth-promoting social climate of unconditional positive regard, genuineness, and empathy 5. If our environment is negative, we fall short, in our own eyes, of our ideal self ii. Trait theory 1. Five factor Model a. Openness i. Curiosity, flexibility, imagination, artistic sensibility b. Conscientiousness i. Discipline, organization, dependable c. Extraversion i. Outgoing, upbeat, friendly, assertive, gregarious d. Agreeableness i. Sympathetic, trusting, cooperative, straightforward e. Neuroticism i. Anxious, hostile, self-conscious iii. Social-cognitive theory 1. Emphasizes interactions of our traits with situations 2. Behavior is learned through conditioning and observation of others 3. Tested using observations in realistic situations c. Determining What is Abnormal Behavior i. Behaviors straying from societal “norms” ii. Norms vary across cultures and over time iii. Many people engage in odd behaviors iv. Need to consider the context. Therapy a. How Different Treatments are Implemented i. Psychodynamic therapy 1. Emphasis a. Problems are manifestations of mental conflicts b. Unconscious influence on thoughts and behavior c. Conscious awareness of those conflicts is key to reduce anxiety d. Past experiences and important relationships focus 2. Therapist’s role a. Encourages patient to make conscious the unconscious (defended-against) drives and motivations b. Interprets free associations, dreams, slips of the tongue ii. Humanistic therapy 1. Emphasis a. Consciousself-actualization, self-direction, self-esteem b. Person- or client-centered (not patients)

2. Therapist’s role a. Promote growth b. Shows empathy c. Expresses unconditional positive regard d. Active listening (Paraphrase, Invite clarification, & Reflect feelings) iii. Cognitive therapy 1. Emphasis a. Consciously alter maladaptive thoughts and beliefs b. Cognitive process: i. Activating events>beliefs>consequence 2. Therapist’s role a. Directs client to identify maladaptive thoughts and reinterpret them i. Change belief b. Problem-centered therapy iv. Behavioral therapy 1. Emphasis a. Replace maladaptive with adaptive behaviors b. Focus on learning via conditioning 2. Therapist’s role a. Relaxation & Assertiveness training b. Help client identify rewards for maladaptive behaviors for conditioning process c. Exposure therapy d. Change client’s environment v. Biomedical therapy 1. Pharmacological agents 2. Electroculsive therapy 3. Psychosurgery 4. Deep brain stimulation 5. Transcranial magnetic stimulation b. Pros/Cons of using Each Therapy for Different Disorders c. Labeling i. Culture ii. gender...