Psychology 101 Exam 2 Study Guide PDF

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Professor Lewis Exam 2 Review...

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Consciousness, Waking consciousness, & Altered states of consciousness 1. Consciousness: A person's awareness of everything that is going on around them and inside their head, at any given moment 2. Waking consciousness: A state in which a person's thoughts, feelings, and sensations are clear organized, and the person feel alert 3. Altered states of consciousness: There is a shift in the quality of people's mental activitynoticeably different than waking consciousness (Ex: Dreams, drugs and alcohol, meditation, hypnosis, and sleep)

Insufficient Sleep, Microsleeps, Sleep deprivation 1. Microsleeps: Brief bursts of sleep lasting only a few seconds 2. Sleep deprivation (sleep debt): Any significant loss of sleep, on a chronic basis (results in physical trembling hands, droopy eyelids, etc.; Cognitive: Poor concentration, memory inattentiveness , irritability, and depression, etc.) 3. Sleep deprivation research discussed in lecture (know results): Subject groups (No sleep; 4 hours of sleep; 6 hours of sleep; 8 hours of sleep) It measured the cognitive and physical abilities and subjects estimated how well they performed. The results were that the 6 hour group did just as poorly as the group with no sleep. Over two days, they still did not know they were doing poorly.

REM vs. Non-REM Sleep 1. REM sleep: Rapid Eye Movement (We can't move)(90% of our dreams occur in REM sleep)(Brain waves are measured, and conclude that our brain is active) (Beta waves in REM sleep) 2. Non REM sleep: Any of the stages of sleep that do not include REM sleep (A much deeper sleep than REM sleep. Physiologically restorative sleep)

The Stages of Sleep, REM Sleep, Beta waves, Stage One (Hypnic jerk and Hypnagoic images), Stage Two (Sleep spindless), Stage Three (Delta waves), Stage Four 1. REM sleep: Rapid Eye Movement (Eyes move rapidly under the eyelids; Active stages of sleep-brain is active) The brain waves are measured (They change in various steps and suggest that our brain waves are active) Voluntary muscles are paralyzed in REM (We can't move) (90% of our dreams occur in REM sleep) 2. Beta waves: in REM sleep and REMsleep=dreaming 3. REM paralysis 4. Non-REM sleep (NREM) 5. 1. Stage One (non-REM) 6. Hypnic jerk: Jerk by the leg, arm, or whole body as one is in Stage one of sleep 7. Hypnagogic images: Vivid visual images that are common in Stage One sleep (They are not dreams yet) (People are drifting into sleep. Heart slows down and breathing gets

more shallow) 8. 2. Stage Two (non-REM): People are not drifting into into sleep. The Heart slows down and breathing gets more shallow 9. Sleep spindles: Burst of brain activity in Stage Two. 10. 3. Stage Three (non-REM): Deeper sleep 11. delta waves begin: Delta waves are long and slow brain waves indicate deep sleep (Up to 50% of brain waves can be delta waves) 12. Delta waves: Long slow brain waves that indicate deep sleep 13. 4. Stage Four (non-REM): The deepest stage of sleep (Can wake up confused) (Once over 50% of waves are deep sleep waves (delta waves) the person is in Stage four sleep, and eventually 100% of brain waves) delta waves increase

The Cycle of Sleep 1. The Cycle of Sleep: Every sleep cycle we have a REM 2. A typical night's sleep: A typical sleep cycle is 1-2-3-4-3-2-REM; (Higher the number is, the deeper the sleep) One sleep cycle lasts 90 minutes; For every typical sleep cycle 90 minutes or 1.5 hours, on average, we have 1 REM period

Sleep Disorders: Sleepwalking, Sleeptalking, Night Terrors, Nightmares, Insomnia, Sleap Apnea, & Narcolepsy 1. Sleepwalking (somnam (Moving) bulism (Sleeping)): In stage four REM; 20% of the population; It is seen in kids more than adults; More common in males than females 2. Sleep talking (somniloquy): In Stage Four non-REM; More common in kids than adults 3. Night Terrors: A state of panic while in deep sleep; (NOT a dream) (Ex: Screaming, Running, Hitting, etc.) In stage 4 non-REM; More common in kids 4. Nightmares: Bad dreams occurring during REM sleep (You don't move because it's REM sleep) (We remember because we're close to being asleep) 5. Insomnia: Inability to fall or stay asleep 6. Sleep Apnea: Episodes where the person stops breathing for half a minute or more, resulting in gasping, chortling, or loud snoring (Fluctuate in the sleep cylce) 7. Narcolepsy: Cannot resist falling into REM sleep (Triggered by stress or arousal)

Classical Conditioning: Stimulus, Response, & Reflex 1. Classical Conditioning (Equates to learning): A form of learning that consists of associating an initially neutral stimulus with a stimulus that always brings about a

2. 3. 4. 5.

particular reflexive response S------->R Stimulus: Any object event, or experience that causes a response or reaction Response: Reaction to the stimulus Reflex: Involuntary, automatic response

Pavlov's Dogs (p.188) 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8.

Ivan Pavlov (1849-1936) Wins a Nobel Prize in Medical physiology Researched the purpose of saliva in dogs Saliva is a reflexive response to food Uses meat powder (UCS) Bell (NS) Salivation (UCR) Trained dogs to respond to a bell around feeding time to salivate

Unconditioned Stimulus (UCS), Unconditioned Response (UCR), Conditioned Response (CR) 1. Unconditioned Stimulus (UCS): A stimulus that naturally leads to a reflexive response (without prior learning)(Learn to associate stimuli and to anticipate events) 2. Unconditioned Response (UCR): An unlearned reflexive response that is automatically brought about by the UCS 5. Conditioned Response (CR): The original reflexive response that is now brought about by the conditioned stimulus

Neutral Stimulus (NS) & Conditioned Stimulus (CS) 1. Neutral Stimulus (NS): Stimulus that normally has no effect on the desired behavior (The Neutral Stimulus becomes the... CS) 2. Conditioned Stimulus (CS): An initially neutral stimulus that eventually brings about a conditioned response

Important Concepts of Classical Conditioning: Stimulus Generalization, Stimulus Discrimination, Extinction, Spontaneous Recover, Higher-Order Learning 1. Stimulus Generalization: Tendency to respond to something that is the original CS

2. Stimulus Discrimination: Responding differently to different stimuli 3. Extinction: The lack of response following the removal of the UCS 4. Spontaneous Recovery: The return of a previously extinguished conditioned response following a rest period 5. Higher-order Learning: Occurs when a strong CS is paired with a NS causing that new NS to become a second CS

Conditioned Emotional Responses in the Little Albert Study John Watson: Applied Classical Conditioning to humans. Explored whether you can classically condition emotions (Found out you can) Conditioned Emotional Response the Little Albert study: They chose a baby named Albert. One line is that his mother was paid to be used. The "extinction" took place because the mother took him out of the study. Another story line is that he was an orphan and that he was chosen because of his disposition. The "extinction" took place because he got adopted. He was picked because he was a typical (he has typical reflexive responses that all baby's have) delightful baby. They use a white rat because he likes it. Every Time that white rat is presented a loud noise is made. (5-6x) Albert's natural reaction is to cry. Even without the noise, he began to cry and he tries to get away from it. A new baby came in name Peter, and they did the same thing but with a rabiat. For extinction, the UCS was not presented, and there was no loud noise. UCS: Loud noise UCR: Fear NS: The white rat CS: Rat CR: Fear

Operant Conditioning 1. B.F Skinner 2. Operant Conditioning: Learning the relationship between one's own voluntary behavior and the consequences that result

Types of Reinforcement: Positive and Negative 1. Reinforcement: Any event that follows a response and increases the probability that the response will occur again 2. a. Positive Reinforcement: The reinforcement of a response by the addition of a pleasurable consequence. You add or give something desirable and the behavior will increase 3. b. Negative Reinforcement: The reinforcement of a response by the removal, escape from, or avoidance of an unpleasant stimulus. The desired behavior increases.

Punishment: Any event that follows a response and decreases the probability that the response will occur Successive approximation: Small, achievable, steps that are rewarded, leading up to target behavior

Fixed Interval Schedule of Reinforcement & Variable Interval Schedule 1. Fixed Interval Schedule of Reinforcement: Reinforcement is delivered at predictable time intervals (e.g., after 5, 10, 15, and 20 minutes). Result is Moderate response rate with significant pauses after reinforcement 2. Variable Interval Schedule of Reinforcement: Reinforcement is delivered at unpredictable time intervals (e.g., after 5, 7, 10, and 20 minutes). Result is Moderate yet steady response rate.

Albert Bandura (1925- ) 1. Albert Bandura (1925- ) 2. There are 2 groups of kids. They all are similar in gender, socioeco status, etc. They watched a video of the assistance playing with this novel toy they have never seen before. It did not exist before this study. In one video, she is aggressive with the bobo doll. The other group of kids watch the same video, but she just plays with it. She's not aggressive with it. Then, the children get to go individually to a play room that has the doll with it along with the other toys. All of the kids played with the doll. The ones who saw the woman being aggressive with it, they were violent. He noticed that they used the toy guns even though not used in the video.The ones who saw her played naturally played neutral. He did another group of kids and showed them a video when the doll was used in a violent way. One video was rewarded and another was punished. He noticed that that influences our behavior.

Memory: An active system that receives information from the senses and organizes and alters it as it stores it and retrieves the information from storage

Three Processes of Memory 1. Encoding: Mental operation convert sensory information into a form that the brain can store (The brain is storing what we see and hear. Not light waves) 2. Storage: Holding on to information for a varying period of time

3. Retrieval: Going back to get information from storage Information-Processing Model Information-Processing Model: Model of memory is based on the way a computer processes information (Atkinson-Shiffrin Model) (p.258) 1. Sensory Memory: Very brief, first stage of memory where information enters the nervous system from the senses 2. Iconic Sensory Memory: Visual sensory memory; The brief memory of something just seen; The capacity is anything you can see at any one time; The duration of this type of memory is half a second eidetic imagery: The ability to access a visual memory over a long period of time (Also known as a photographic memory) 3. Echoic Sensory Memory: This is our auditory memory; The brief memory of something we just heard; The capacity is anything we can hear at one time; The duration is 2-4 seconds (longer than iconic sensory memory)

Short-Term Memory (STM): Capacity, Chunking, & Duration Short-Term Memory (STM): The memory system in which information is held for brief periods of time while being used; It encodes in an auditory form (Short term memory is active) (Significantly audio, but it can also be visually stored. We default to encoding it in auditory form) selective attention: The ability to focus on only one stimulus from among all sensory input a. Capacity: Miller gave a STM test to adult by reading numbers and having them record what is being said. He found that the range was (5-9) 'the magic number 7, plus or minus 2' when we go beyond that range, it gets difficult Chunking: Organizing lots of information into meaningful units. (The subjects sometimes went beyond the "7 minus 2" chunks is the capacity of STM) b. Duration: 12-30 seconds without rehearsal, and after that the memory decays or disappears Maintenance rehearsal: Repeating something over and over theoretically so the memory can stay there forever through rehearsal, and can transfer to LTM; When you stop rehearsing it, you have 12-30 seconds unless you transfer it to LTM

Long-Term memory (LTM): Elaborative rehearsal, Procedural LTM, Declarative LTM, semantic memory, & episodic memory Long-Term memory (LTM): The system in which information is to be kept more or less permanently (There is no capacity in LTM)

elaborative rehearsal: A method of transferring information into long term memory by making it meaningful in some way a. Types of LTM Procedural LTM: Memory for skills, procedures, habitats, and conditioned responses. (This is considered to be the "how to memory" This is the hardest memory to be lost. The illness of memory loss, it's the hardest memories to lose, but they forget when to apply it) Declarative LTM: Memory of facts and information ("What we know memory") a. semantic memory: Contains general knowledge that anyone has the ability to know (A type of declarative LTM) b. episodic memory: Contain personal information (A type of declarative LTM)

Serial position effect vs. Misinformation Effect Serial position effect: The tendency to better remember information from the beginning and the ends of list, but not the middle Misinformation Effect: After exposure to incorrect information, a person may misremember the original event; Research included people involved in car accidents getting wrong information, and when interviewed they remembered the information incorrectly

Recovered Memories and the Risk of False Memories Recovered Memories and the Risk of False Memories: Kids read about 5 childhood events (3 happened and 2 didn't; 1 of the false events were plausible) They remembered the plausible false event occurring, but it didn't. The same was found in adults. 1. The event must be made to seem plausible 2. Individuals are given information that the event could have happened to them

Distributed practice: Spacing the study of material to be remembered by including breaks between study periods

Interference Theory

1. proactive interference: Old information hinders the recall of newly learned information 2. retroactive interference: Information learned more recently hinders the recall of older information

Cognitive Development, Piaget's Theory, Sensorimotor Stage, Accomplishment, & Limitations in this stage (Egocentrism, Centration, and Conservation) Cognitive Development: How we develop intellectually Piaget's Theory: His name is attached to the Cognitive Development, and he studied infants (first) and childhood development. Suggest that we go through four stages. We may not go through all four, but the stages are chronological. Sensorimotor Stage: Children begin to use their senses and motor abilities to explore the world in which they live (birth to age 2) Accomplishment: Object Permanence: Understanding that objects continue to exist even when you can't see, touch, or hear them. Preoperational Stage: 2nd stage of cognitive development when language and symbolic thinking develops (Ex: Pretending with objects) (4-5 years old they start to ask questions, and are not cognitively thinking/challenging you) (ages 2-7 y.o.) Limitations of this stage a. Egocentrism: Inability to take someone else's perspective b. Centration: The tendency to focus on one feature of an object while ignoring other prevalent features c. Conservation: The understanding that changing the appearance of an object does not change the nature of the object (Children have an issue with conservation because of centration)

The Concrete Operational Stage (ages 7-12 y.o.): Limitation of this stage, Formal Operational Stage (12 y.o. -- adulthood), & Major criticism of Theory The Concrete Operational Stage (ages 7-12 y.o.) (p.298) 1. Limitation of this stage: Abstract Reasoning, but all concrete things they can wrap their head around d. Formal Operational Stage (12 y.o. -- adulthood) (p.298) (there are no limitations of this stage) Major criticism of Theory: Did not take into the account the social role of others (How others help us to cognitively develop)

Psychosocial Development: How we develop into who we are

Harry Harlow (1958) & Contact comfort 1. Harry Harlow (1958) - Rhesus monkey experiment ("Why do infants get close to their caregivers? Food? (The result was contact comfort, and not food. He conducted an experiment with an infant monkey that had a wire surrogate, and a soft caregiver, and the monkey chose the soft caregiver over the wire one. It revealed that we form a connection with out caregivers not because of food, but because of nurturing.) 2. Contact comfort: Being soothed by something soft to touch

Attachment Theory: Attachment, Internal working model of attachment: Erikson's Theory, first stage- Trust vs. Mistrust, Fifth stage- Identity vs. Role Confusion, Last stage- Ego integrity vs. Despair Attachment Theory: The field in development that looks at the role of a primary giver Attachment: The emotional bond between an infant an a caregiver (How consistently our needs are being met from infancy to about 1) Internal working model of attachment: A mental representation of the self, the attachment figure, and relationships in general 2. Erikson's (Student of Freud) Theory (There are 8 stages in our psychosocial development. There is always a crisis/conflict) first stage- Trust vs. Mistrust (First year of life. How well the child's needs are met determines their trust vs. mistrust) Fifth stage- Identity vs. Role Confusion (Deciding who they are and who they want to be) (The challenge is determining who am I? The consequence would be following the crowd) Last stage- Ego integrity vs. Despair (Will a person reach the point of wisdom and holiness and accept his/her life) (Crisis would be fearing death, but if we succeed we will be happy with life and not fear death)

Cognitive Development: the Personal Fable & the Imaginary Audience Cognitive Development 1. the Personal Fable: Type of thinking that adolescents think that they are unique and protected from harm (Ex: Drink and drive and won't die) 2. the Imaginary Audience: Believes everyone is thinking about them/talking about them...