Karl Marx - exam notes - Summary Political Philosophy PDF

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Karl MarxIntroduction to Marx’s views about the transition to modern capitalism with specific focus on his observations regarding what is distinctive and problematic about modern society, and on his materialist understanding of historical changeBackground:Born in 1818 in Germany to a bourgeois famil...

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Karl Marx Introduction to Marx’s views about the transition to modern capitalism with specific focus on his observations regarding what is distinctive and problematic about modern society, and on his materialist understanding of historical change Background: Born in 1818 in Germany to a bourgeois family Became fascinated with philosophy of Hegel and Feuerbach at university in Berlin Failed to become an academic so moved into journalism Met Engels (a very wealthy industrialist) – became essential Journal banned in Germany so exiled to France where he became acquainted with anarchism (Proudhon) and utopian socialism (Fourier) Moved to Brussels – read about economics e.g. Adam Smith – wrote ‘Economic and Philosophical Manuscripts’ Moved to Germany and started the ‘German Ideology’ – talks about Hegel and German idealism, critiques the power of the economy and how it shapes out thinking – emphasises the need to engage with the economy Wrote ‘Communist Manifesto’ Wrote ‘Grundrisse’ Died in 1883 in England ‘Money is the common whore’ Men must be in a position to live in order to make history History must be studied and treated in relation to history of industry and exchange Consciousness is a social product Capitalism is in conflict with much of human nature Under communism, accumulated labour is a means to promote and enrich the existence of labour Why is he on the paper? He paints a picture of how society should work, and shows how the foundations of society give rise to a social order

Argues for structure (society determined by economics and vice versa) over agency (Thatcherism, no society, individualism) Tension in Marx’s work between trying to be political, trying to be scientific and trying to get support – can he have it all? Is the revolution inevitable if he is telling people it needs to happen? Specific revolution has not historically been observed – so if it were to, might just be due to his theories Are we post-industrial? Service industry as we know it not envisaged by Marx Rise of social democracies – not envisaged by Marx How was he influenced by Hegel?  Organicism/holism – looking at society as a whole, seeing connections between parts, society cannot be reduced to an aggregate of individuals, economy crucial in this organism, the rules of the economy change depending on the type of society  Historicism – invented by Popper to refer to Marx and Hegel’s work (critical) – looking at laws and patterns in History to prophesise about the future  Teleology – preoccupation with Telos (end product) – whole course of history headed towards inevitable ending  Dialectics – thinking in terms of contradictions, which in particular would bring about change, wants to situate these contradictions in the economy, contradictions accumulate in the economic structure and bring about an economic change which leads to a change in society  Alienation – linked to dialectics How does Marx depart from Hegel?  Feuerbach creates a critique of Hegel – wants to emphasise how systems of thought are influenced by the material conditions in which people operate  Marx moves away from idealism and embraces a more materialistic conception of History  Uses work of Smith and Ricardo (political economists)  Looks at how exploitation works and its effects  Changed fixed categories of Smith and Ricardo – redefines economic theory accordingly – e.g. private property not fixed, arises from other specific economic and material categories  Very influenced by egalitarian elements of utopian socialism  Wants to create scientific socialism – why is this society desirable and inevitable  Need to establish the nature of the proletariat by studying history in Marx’s way Key Ideas: Capital:

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Capital = stored up labour, the governing power over labour and its products – social product, only exists in some social systems Capitalist = owner of capital Money is the aim of profits To gain profits, money is to be invested – it then becomes capital Men are evaluated objectively in terms of their materialistic credibility They become money focussed Labourers have to buy produce at a higher cost than it is made – workers can therefore not build up capital Capitalism is chaotic – only a planned system can discover the best methods of production and distribution Property based (in capitalism) on the antagonism of capital and wage labour Capital consists of raw materials, instruments of labour and means of subsistence of all kinds – which are utilised to make new of all of these – they are creations of labour Wage labour and capital are the reciprocal condition for the existence of each other – capital can only increase by bringing in wage labour Increase of capital = increase of proletariat (working class)

Wage Labour:  Nothing can enter the market unaltered  Exchange requires labour (wage labour in capitalism, which is a commodity)  Alienation ensues when labour becomes wage labour  The value added to the produce by the labourer does not go back to the labourer, it goes to the capitalist instead – goal of worker is subsistence  Labourers are exposed to the market – wages fluctuate based on market  As division of labour increases and the application of machinery grows, there is more competition among workers as wages contract  Labour power has only adopted the subjective conditions of necessary labour in capitalism  Labour power is an abstract from labour  Deceptive appearance is not an accidental delusion – arises from very conditions of capitalist production, under which exploitation is concealed, slurred over, and the relations between the employer and the wage-worker appear in distorted form as relations between equal commodity producers  Capitalist pays worker after worker has expended labour, wages are fixed in accordance with time worked – false impression created – as though wages were a full payment for the time worked  If the capitalist were to pay the worker the value of his labour, there would then be no source for the capitalist’s wealth – no surplus value so the capitalist mode of production could not exist  Labour is the creator of the value of commodities, but labour is not itself a commodity and has no value – the value of labour is really the value of labour power – this is always less than the new value created by the worker’s labour  Wages are the payment for only part of the working day, the necessary labour time  As wages take the form of payment for labour, the impression is created that the whole of the working day is fully paid for

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Wages in bourgeois society are therefore the ‘transmuted form of the value or price of labour power’ ‘Wages are not what they appear to be, namely the value, or price, of labour, but only a masked form for the value, or price, of labour power.’ Wages are the monetary expression of the value of labour power, its price, outwardly appearing as the price of labour Whilst in feudalist societies there is no illusion of fair pay – there is no pay – distinct separation in time and space between necessary labour of peasant on own holding and surplus labour on lord’s demesne – under the capitalist system, even the unpaid labour of the wage-worker appears to be paid for Wages conceal all traces of the division of the working day into necessary and surplus labour time – into paid and unpaid labour – so cover up the relation of capitalist exploitation Ideal of capitalism is a ‘fair day’s wage for a fair day’s work’ – ‘normal situation’ under capitalism Under slavery, exploitation is naked and obvious to the exploiter and exploited alike Under feudalism, the serfs work on a plot of land belonging to the lord Work for part of the time for themselves, producing subsistence, and the rest of the time, their product belongs to the lord – terms of exploitation clear to the serf and lord alike – serf labours for lord and receives nothing in return Capitalism is different among the chief forms of class societies Exploitative nature hidden by wage system Except in cases of outright fraud, workers are hired, labour for a given amount of time, and receive a wage in return Appears on surface that an equal exchange has taken place – not the case Capitalist, in addition to purchasing various inputs into the productive process (machinery, raw materials etc.) also buys ‘labour power’ (increments of workers’ time during which the capitalist controls the workers’ creative and physical energies) Under capitalism, most needs are met, at least for those who can afford them, by commodities (goods and services for sale on market) Working class people, who do not own the means to produce and sell commodities, have one commodity they can sell: labour power, their ability to work So they are forced to sell themselves to a capitalism in order to acquire money to buy the necessities of life Labour power is ‘the aggregate of those mental and physical capabilities existing in the physical form, the living personality, of a human being, capabilities he sets in motion whenever he produces a use-value of any kind’ Essentially is capacity to work, to create value – worker sells to capitalist in increments for a wage Labour is the process of work itself Like the buyer of any commodity, the capitalist claims the right to consume the commodity they purchase – so the consumption of labour-power consists of the control of the labour process and the ownership of the products the workers create during it Unlike inanimate inputs that pass on their value to the product and create no new value, labour power is a ‘special commodity…whose use-value possesses the peculiar

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property of being a source of value’.’ – workers produce new value contained in the final product, this belongs to the capitalist Distinction between labour power and labour crucial in understanding exploitation under capitalism When a capitalist pays a worker a wage, they are not paying for the value of a certain amount of completed labour, but for labour power Contemporary evidence in soaring inequality under neoliberalism – wealth workers create has increased, but this has not been reflected in wage increases – instead, an increasing proportion of the wealth produced by workers swelled the pockets of the superrich – did not compensate the workers for their increased production on the job Appears that capitalist pays worker for the value produced by labour because workers receive a pay check after they have worked for a given amount of time – in reality, this amounts to an interest-free loan of labour-power by the worker to the capitalist Marx – ‘in all cases, therefore, the worker advances the use-value of his labourpower to the capitalist. He lets the buyer consume it before he receives payment of the price. Everywhere, the worker allows credit to the capitalist.’ Capitalists purchase labour-power on the market In general, the wage (price of labour power) is like all other commodities, determined by the cost of production – this it in turn regulated by struggles between workers and capitalists over the level of wages and benefits, and by competition between workers and jobs In Wage Labour and Capital, Marx wrote that the cost of production of labour-power is ‘the cost required for the maintenance as the labourer… and for his education and training as a labourer.’ Price of labour power determined by cost of food, clothing, housing and education at a given standard of living Marx adds that ‘the cost of production of labour power must include the cost of propagation, by means of which the race of workers is enabled to multiply itself, and to replace worn-out workers with new ones’ – so wages must include cost of raising children (next generation of workers) Level of wages therefore dependent on what it takes to keep workers and their families alive and able to work – standard of living affected by the outcome of class struggles between workers and capitalists Crucially, the cost of wages or labour-power depends on factors completely independent of the actual value produced by workers during the labour process – this is the source of surplus value, expressed in price, of the commodities that workers create through their labour If capitalism weren’t exploitative, workers would be able to go home after producing what they need to earn subsistence via producing that value in the form of products belonging to the capitalist But, ‘by buying the daily or weekly value of the labouring power of the worker, the capitalist has therefore acquired the right to use or make that labouring power during the whole day or week.’

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So, in order to receive a wage equivalent to the value their produce in four hours, the worker is forced to work longer to get surplus value which is profit for the capitalist (secret to source of profits) Exploitation forms basis of all profits shared among entire capitalist class Most importantly, theory of exploitation reveals that because the source of capitalists’ wealth is the unpaid labour of workers, the interests of the workers and capitalists (like slave and master or serf and lord before them) are diametrically opposed and thus impossible to reconcile – the two will always come into conflict since capitalists can only increase their share of the wealth at the expense of the workers, and vice versa Workers have to struggle to decrease severity of the exploitation – but as long as capitalism persists, workers will be exploited, and their unpaid labour will remain the source of the profits as lifeblood of system So, the only way for workers to control the wealth they create and use it to meet their needs is under an altogether different system Marx in ‘Value, Price and Profit,’ ‘instead of the conservative motto, ‘a fair day’s wages for a fair day’s work!’ they ought to inscribe on their banner the revolutionary watchword, ‘Abolition of the wages system!’ According to Marx, only when workers control the means of production for their own benefit can exploitation be abolished – only then will the ‘expropriators be expropriated’

Division of labour:  Initial separation of industrial and commercial from agriculture  Then commercial from industrial  On a wider scale, these relations are seen between states  The various phases in the development of the division of labour are different forms of ownership  So stage in division determines the relations of individuals to one another  Elementary division of labour – tribal ownership – hunting, fishing  Ancient communal and state ownership – union of tribes – slavery exists  Private property is here developing – citizens hold power over slaves – slaves are owned in a community (communal private property)  This form decays and immovable private property evolves  The division of labour becomes more developed  Antagonism is caused between town and country and state – class relation between citizens and slaves is complete  Next is feudalism – based on a community – enserfed small peasantry produce  Over time, class antagonisms plague towns  Feudalism = landed property with serf labour chained to it vs. labour of individuals with small capital  Organisation is determined by restricted conditions of production (forces of production) – primitive cultivation and craft-type industry  There is little division of labour  Division of labour goes international – one country producing agricultural produce, one producing industrial commodities etc.

Historical Materialism:  Capitalism as final conflicted phase in the historical dialectics  The forces of production, state of society and consciousness must and can come into contradiction as the division of labour implies the possibility that intellectual and material activity devolve in different individuals  The bourgeoisie is incapable of maintaining its ascendancy without permanently revolutionising the forces of production  As soon as the division of labour comes into being, an exclusive sphere of activity is forced upon a man and he cannot escape – needs subsistence  1st historical act is producing means to survive, this then leads to new needs  Distinction between Uberbau (superstructure – economic mode of production) and Unterbau (infrastructure)  Both influence each other, but the uberbau is decisive in influencing what goes on  Industry + exchange = history  Relations of production – rules of system in operation in particular economic system – rules about how companies work – shifts throughout history but relatively stable in a given time period  Forces of production (industrial stage) – anything used to control environment e.g. technology, instruments, science  Throughout history, forces of production increase i.e. we become better at controlling our environment, takes us less time and energy to create products  With every system, there are a stable set of relations of production (social stage – capitalism, feudalism etc.) – this leads to an increase in the forces of production  There is a limit to the increase of the forces of production  Have to advance the relations of production when the forces of production cannot be exploited  The advance in forces means radical change in relations of production is necessary  Also causing the shift in relations are the contradictions between those being exploited and those in power  Feudalism  capitalism  Eventually, the forces of production are no longer in harmony with the forces of production – this coincides with class conflict  Those who do not own the means of production are on the right side of history  To be productive, we must radically change the relations of production  The increases in the forces of production are a good thing – Marx embraces industrialisation but thinks it needs to go down a different route  He looks at inherent contradictions in each system which then leads to radical change – forces, relations, classes (dialectics)  He looks for patterns that have emerged in history (historicist)  He also is looking at an end point – egalitarian society (teleological)  Revolution is inevitable – but timing must be right with capitalism in its most intense advanced form Alienation:  Links with Hegel  Lots of things wrong with capitalism: it is exploitative, inefficient and dehumanising  Alienation from what it is to be you – worker becomes stranger to self

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Relies on essence – refers to set of features that we all have within us – these things are always possible If we want to be full human beings, we must put energy in to develop them It is crucial that we control the product we make – if you are not in control of your surroundings, you become too easily impacted by the forces around you This is what separates us from animals and allows us to have a mutual relationship with fellow human beings Capitalism undermines these dimensions and we are reduced to animal functions For example, in an assembly line, you are not in control of the product you are making, your movements are controlled by the machine, and you do not communicate meaningfully with other human beings The worker’s label becomes an object – independent and alien to worker The life the worker has given to the object has become hostile and alien Educational energy is lost Work is reduced to satisfying the needs of others Don’t develop energy freely, physical exhaustion Lose what it is to be human Can only be freely active in animal functions (eating, drinking, procreating) Reduced to animal in human functions Human has become animal and animal has become human From exploitation arises another of the most pertinent evils of capitalism; alienation:  Alienation is ‘estrangement’ from one’s ‘species essence’ (or species being)  This term, adopted from Feuerbach essentially means the principle that separates humans from animals – do we have to accept this – whole alienation theory hinged upon t...