Khrushchev - Lecture notes All PDF

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KhrushchevKhrushchev Led the Soviet Union through the Cold War  Pursued a policy of peaceful coexistence with the West  BUT instigated the Cuban Missile Crisis (placing nuclear weapons on Cuba 90 miles from Florida)  Initiated de-Stalinisation that made the Soviet society less repressive (but st...

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Khrushchev Khrushchev  Led the Soviet Union through the Cold War  Pursued a policy of peaceful coexistence with the West  BUT instigated the Cuban Missile Crisis (placing nuclear weapons on Cuba 90 miles from Florida)  Initiated de-Stalinisation that made the Soviet society less repressive (but still harsh e.g. crushing the revolt in Hungary and approving the construction of the Berlin)  Known for flamboyant speeches His Takeover of Power  During WWII  Khrushchev mobilised troops to fight Nazi Germany in the Ukraine and at Stalingrad  After the war  he helped to rebuild the devastated countryside while shutting down Ukrainian dissent  March 1953  Stalin died and 6 months later Khrushchev became the head of the communist party and one of the most powerful people in the USSR  Khrushchev and other high-ranking officials ruled through a form of collective leadership.  1955  He organized the ouster of Premier Georgi Malenkov and replaced him with an ally, Nikolai Bulganin.  June 1957  Khrushchev foiled a Malenkov-led coup attempt and took over the premiership the following March. De-Stalinisation  February 1956  Khrushchev gave a long speech (Secret Speech) that criticized Stalin for arresting and deporting opponents, for elevating himself above the party (Cult of Personality) and for incompetent wartime leadership causing huge loss of life and ultimately losing the war, among other things. He condemned Stalin's crimes and unlawful execution of loyal party members  This was done to legitimize Khrushchev’s rise to power, separate him from Stalin and show the people he was different. He could absolve himself and the Communist party rom these crimes and put the blame solely on Stalin  Emboldened by Khrushchev’s so-called “secret speech,” protestors took to the streets in the Soviet satellites of Poland and Hungary.  The Polish revolt was resolved fairly peacefully, but the Hungarian revolt (1956) was violently suppressed with troops and tanks by Khrushchev - at least 2,500 Hungarians were killed in late 1956, and about 13,000 were wounded. Many saw this brutality as a return of Stalinist tactics  Many more fled to the West, and others were arrested or deported.

Domestic Policies

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Khrushchev tried (not always successfully) to increase agricultural production and raise living standards.  For example, The Virgin Lands Scheme 1954 was a national incentive aimed to raise grain productivity by one third by cultivating land in Kazakhstan, Siberia and lower Volga regions.  He reduced the power of the Soviet Union’s feared secret police, released many political prisoners, closed many labour camps, relaxed artistic censorship, opened up more of the country to foreign visitors and inaugurated the space age in 1957 with the launch of the satellite Sputnik.  Two years later, a Soviet rocket hit the moon, and in 1961 Soviet astronaut Yuri A. Gagarin became the first man in space. Foreign Relations  Khrushchev had a complicated relationship with the West because he believed in communism; he nonetheless preferred peaceful coexistence with capitalist countries.  Unlike Stalin, he even visited the United States.  Relations between the two superpowers deteriorated somewhat in 1960 when the Soviets shot down an American U-2 spy plane deep inside their territory. The following year, Khrushchev approved the construction of the Berlin Wall in order to stop East Germans from fleeing to capitalist West Germany.  Cold War tensions reached a high point in October 1962 when the United States discovered Soviet nuclear missiles stationed in Cuba.  One of the sharpest thorns in Khrushchev’s side was fellow communist Mao Zedong, the leader of China. Starting around 1960, the two sides engaged in an increasingly vindictive war of words, with Khrushchev calling Mao a “left revisionist” who failed to comprehend modern warfare. The Chinese, meanwhile, criticized Khrushchev as a “psalm-singing buffoon” who underestimated the nature of Western imperialism. Khrushchev’s fall from Power  The break with China and food shortages in the USSR eroded Khrushchev’s legitimacy in the eyes of other high-ranking Soviet officials, who were already bothered by what they saw as his erratic tendency to undercut their authority. 

October 1964  Khrushchev was called back from a vacation in Georgia, and forced to resign as both premier and head of the Communist Party.

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Khrushchev wrote his memoirs and quietly lived out the remainder of his days before dying of a heart attack in September 1971. Nonetheless, his spirit of reform lived on during the perestroika era of the 1980s.

How far did de-Stalinisation represent a genuine a break from the past? DID represent a break -1956  The Secret Speech lasted 4 hours and denounced the ‘Personality Cut and its consequences’, where Khrushchev criticised Stalin’s crimes, including the execution, arrest and torture of loyal party members under false members. He blamed Stalin for foreign policy errors, agricultural failures and the huge losses in WWII - It was reported in the foreign papers the next day – he wanted the public to know how much Stalin had let them down and that he was different -It was read out in party branches -Khrushchev wanted to move away from the highly centralised governing style and was successful on making the party more accountable to the people, reforming the bureaucracy so it appeared less corrupt and more effective in dealing with public needs -Khrushchev was met with little opposition from workers and peasants because he spent a lot of time talking with them in a way they could understand and relate to (he came from a peasant background) -Thousands of political prisoners were released -1961  Khrushchev repeated his attack on Stalin’s memory – and other speakers denounced his crimes as well -Stalin’s body was removed from his grave next to Lenin in Red Square -Stalingrad was renamed to Volgograd -This changed the Soviet Union – they were no longer Stalinist, even when Khrushchev fell from power he was not executed, banished or imprisoned

DID NOT represent a break -Khrushchev still used force to deal with dissent. For example, the Hungarian Uprising was brutally put down - at least 2,500 Hungarians were killed in late 1956, and about 13,000 were wounded, whereas the Polish revolt was not violently put down -Only aspects of the political system were changed – not the system itself -There was a contradiction between his economic policies – although he delegated power to local governments, centralised planning of the economy continued and he was reluctant to embrace an economic system based on market forces -He dealt with the unrest shown by the Russian people at the Virgin Land Scheme with force -Some say he developed his ‘Cult of Personality’ just as much as Stalin had, at times

To what extent, were the economic and social reforms made by Khrushchev a failure?

Agriculture WERE a failure -Feb 1954  Virgin Land Programme aimed to increase food supply in Russia by farming previously unused land -Early 60s  poor rainfall and soil erosion (lack of crop rotation) destroyed the early gains of the programme -1963  drought year, led to a shortage of bread throughout Russia -The huge amounts of quickly recruited volunteers and workers to the land scheme led to poor living and working conditions and housing shortages – this meant that many workers packed up and left. -As a result of this many workers who remained in the Virgin areas were young and inexperienced so they lacked the skills to work machinery and farm efficiently -The areas Khrushchev chose were not good for farming  Kazakhstan was cold and had barely any rain and most of this was in the summer when crops were ripe, and droughts occurred when shoots were growing and needing most water -The same soil kept being farmed over and over so there was minimum nutrients left in the soil -There was a huge deficiency of fertilizers which also contributed to the lack of food produced -Minimal storage facilities were provided – then, it was either left in the field to rot or farmers harvested all the crops together whenever the weather was suitable and this led to the ripe and unripe crops being mixed, which raised the moisture content causing it all to rot  this accounted for loss of 10-15% of crop output -Abolishment of Motor Tractor Stations – during Stalin's rule they were important in providing machinery and providing political control. Collective farms had to negotiate with the MTSs and farmers did not know when they would get the equipment they needed. Khrushchev removed them too quickly (just one year) and the farmers did not have the right knowledge to maintain machinery. So agricultural machine-making actually declined – and this decrease led to Khrushchev’s fall from power

WERE NOT a failure The Virgin Land Programme had cheap labour – young party members volunteered to farm the land and 300,000 people emigrated to take part in the scheme -Agricultural production showed a significant improvement  grain harvest; in 1953 = 82.5 million tonnes, in 1956 = 125 million tonnes -Good for society  ‘the Soviet countryside ceased to be an exploited colony of the Soviet town. Instead it became a recipient of investment resources and subsidies’ = huge break from Stalinist regime which worked the peasantry harder, rather than finding a different method of farming -Khrushchev opened 60 new fertiliser factories to make up for the severe lack of fertilisers -1963  Significant fall in grain production was caused by bad weather mainly – the weakness of the land scheme had been exaggerated

What was decentralisation of control and its impact? Khrushchev’s aims were 1) Democratisation of the Communist party From 1954-64, part membership increased from 6.9 million to 11 million – mostly workers and peasants. To increase ‘democracy’ Khrushchev introduced ‘Comrades courts’  were set up to deal with minor offences at local level and could fine, sack or sentence people to corrective labour. However, these courts were often subject to bribery and blackmail at local level and were led by ordinary party members Economy was decentralised and distributed from ministries in Moscow and delegated to local officials 2) Decentralisation of control Transferring power from the Soviet Central government to the governments in the 15 republics which made up the USSR 1957  creation of the ‘svnarkhozy’ which were 105 regional councils given authority over economic development

This was done to undermine Stalinism (where all economy was under strict central control – e.g. 5 Year Plans) and improve the standard of living for the people. When Stalin was in power, party members received privileges which were widely resented and to address this Khrushchev introduced major changes to work in Russia. For example, he narrowed the differences between rich and poor, and decriminalised from absenteeism from work. A minimum wage was also introduced Education and housing were reformed  in 1958, Khrushchev abolished tuition fees in universities so poorer children could reach higher education, and from 1955-64, a rapid housing construction programme doubled the amount of homes in the USSR but they were poorly made, high-rise flats Housing

Strength of Housing Programme -In 1957  Khrushchev launched plans to for private apartments completely different from the old, communal apartments because he saw high living conditions as the path towards full communism -The Seven-Year Plan announced in 1958 promised to build 12 million city apartments and 7 million rural houses -This led to a changing attitudes towards the family  Stalin created the vision of a large collective family under Stalin’s strong paternal leadership – with public dining, socialized housework and collective childcare -Under Khrushchev, the new private housing provided new individual kitchens for many

Weakness of Housing Programme -The houses were low cost and therefore poorly constructed and small

families for the first time

How effectively did Khrushchev deal with the challenges posed by the Cold War? Successful – ‘inspirational and innovative’ -Introduced the idea of peaceful coexistence rather than violence – Mutually Assure Destruction -He was the first communist leader to take his initiative and acknowledge that violence was not the only way and peaceful coexistence could be created -Supported the signing of the Austrian State Treaty – shows he was willing to cooperate with the West over Austria’s claims of independence -He supported the construction of the Berlin wall to stop East Germans fleeing into the Western sector – this bold move was popular in Russia -Peaceful coexistence was put into practice where the Cuban Missile Crisis did not end in nuclear war – he cooperated with Kennedy to avoid it from happening , which meant their relations were strengthened especially by the telephone ‘hotline’ link that was put in place in 1963

Unsuccessful – ‘erratic and impulsive’ -Peaceful coexistence was viewed by communists as betrayal of their ideas – they believed in absolute communism -Chinese communists accused him of ‘being too soft’ -When Hungary called for more freedom, Khrushchev quickly and ruthlessly sent Russian tanks to supress the uprising in Budapest which made Khrushchev and his ideology (Communism) look harsh and unfair -The Berlin Wall was oppressive and worsened relations with the West -By placing nuclear weapons on Cuba and so close to America, Khrushchev was seen as an aggressor who provoked Kennedy and thus caused the Cuban Missile Crisis BUT withdrawing the missiles made him look weak in the eyes of his people

‘It was a courageous failure’ How valid is this assessment of Khrushchev’s policy towards minorities, satellite states and Asia?

Success

Failure

China -Khrushchev showed China he was prepared to take a strong position against them -E.g. in 1958, the Soviet Union declined to provide China with military support in its conflict with Taiwan and the USA

Yugoslavia -Tito was given a certain amount of autonomy

Germany -His stance on Germany prevented the West from taking total control of Germany and Berlin – preventing a spread of capitalism

-Caused by disputes over the Marxist-Leninist ideology and de-Stalinisation as Mao had respected him as a leader -Disagreement on the correct method of dealing with imperialism -Tensions caused by Khrushchev’s call for peaceful coexistence

-The autonomy offered to Tito arguably created instability in the Soviet bloc

-Khrushchev’s approach in Germany resulted in the Berlin wall – this suggests he was too willing to resort to repression when his more liberal policies failed

Hungary -Uprising quickly crushed, which made it clear that de-Stalinisation did not mean a weakening of Soviet control -He was backed by other socialist countries (Poland, Czechoslovakia, Romania,Bulgaria) and China -Uprising was crushed very brutally and some regarded it as a Stalinist tactic and further liberal reform in Eastern Europe suffered a major set-back...