Lab Practical 2 Study guide PDF

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Summary

Notes to study for the second Practical (Very detailed)...

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Lab practical 2 LAB 1 (215-221): - Histology: study of tissues - Tissues are composed of one or more cell types that provide a common function - 4 main tissue classes: - Epithelial - Connective - Muscular - Nervous - Epithelial: cells bound together in a layer and are separated from other tissues by a basement membrane; line or cover body cavity -

Simple squamous epithelium:

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plate-like; irregular wavy shape; each cell contains a nucleus Found in: tympanic membrane of the ears, kidney and testis, excretory ducts, line blood vessels

Stratified squamous epithelium:

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Thick; cells vary in shape from base to surface Found in: mouth esophagus, cornea, vagina, and portion of female urethra

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Cuboidal epithelium:

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Columnar epithelium:

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cells appear square or rectangular Found in: glands (thyroid), free surface of ovary, retina, lining of kidney tubules

tall and slender cells Found in: small and large intestine, uterus, oviducts, bronchi of lungs

Connective tissue: composed of cells and fibers in ground substances; hold the body together, support, protect; join and insulate various body parts loose (areolar) connective tissue: diffused collagen fibers

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Find in: superficial and deep fiscia and other structural support to nerves and blood vessels

Dense (regular) connective tissue:

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thick collagen fibers (lots of background space); white fibrous tissue Found in: muscular attachments to bone (tendons), ligaments, and aponeuroses (palm of hand and abdomen)

Adipose tissue:

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Blood cells:

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fat; nucleus and cytoplasm pushed to extremities; large and clear

“Fibers” are only evident during blood clotting - light = erythrocytes - dark = leukocytes (several nuclei)

Hyaline Cartilage (supportive connective tissue):

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firm intracellular matrix; between different bones found in: ventral ends of ribs, tracheal rings, larynx, joint surfaces of bones

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Muscular tissue: enables movement (voluntary or involuntary); moves substances through body

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Skeletal muscle

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Cardiac muscle

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VOLUNTARY; striated, long multinucleated, nucleus not in center contractile proteins actin and myosin

INVOLUNTARY; striations, spindle shaped cells; nucleus on side

Smooth muscle

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- INVOLUNTARY; NOT striated, mononuclear - in center - walls of digestive tract Nervous tissue: conduct electrical impulses - neuron (nerve cell):

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generate and conduct electrical impulses

LAB 1 (323-334): Part 1: - Compact Bone: - Bone: a type of connective tissues - osteons/ haversian systems: concentric cylinders - lamellae: the concentric rings that make up each osteon - central canal/ haversian canal: surrounded by lamellae; contains blood vessels, nerves, and lymphatic vessels - lacunae: small spaces that are between the lamellae - Canaliculi: minute tracts radiating from the lacunae with deliberate projections of the osteocytes - Hyaline Cartilage: - tissue found in the ventral end of ribs, in tracheal rings and the larynx, and on joint surfaces of bones - firm intercellular matrix - composed of sulfated polymerized mucopolysaccharides - cells are called “chondrocytes” contained in spaces called “lacunae”

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Part 2:

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- may be collapsed due to loss of fat and glycogen during tissue preparation Skeletal Muscle: - composed of large, elongated, multinucleated cells - Nuclei have tapered ends and are located peripherally - Striations due to contractile proteins actin and myosin - Tendon = muscle to bone - dense connective tissue - thick collagen fibers arranged in parallel - fibroblasts located between the fibers

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Diaphysis: the long, hollow shaft portion of the long bone. The walls are composed of compact bone and the center (medullary cavity) is filled with yellow marrow Epiphysis: The spherical ends of the long bone. The interior is composed of cancellous (spongy) bone tissue, which contains red marrow Epiphyseal plate: A region of hyaline cartilage, between the epiphysis and the diaphysis, where cancellous bone growth occurs Periosteum: A tough fibrous membrane covering the surfaces of bone. It provides a surface for the attachment of ligaments and tendons, and contains an inner layer of osteogenic cells Articular cartilage: a region of hyaline cartilage that covers the bone surface at the joint. It reduces friction and allows the bones to glide over each other during movement. Compact (dense) bone: consists of tightly packed haversian systems. It is found in the outer regions of the bone, predominantly in the diaphysis Cancellous (spongy) bone: consists of thin plates of bone arranged in an irregular network. It is largely restricted to epiphysis but extends as a thin layer between the compact bone and the medullary cavity in the diaphysis. Open areas are filled with marrow Marrow: - red marrow: consists of developing blood cells in various stages of maturation as well as other cells such as macrophages and fat cells - yellow marrow: serves as fat storage and fills medullary cavity

Part 3: - 5 main types of bones: - Flat: ribs, cranial bones, scapula, sternum - Irregular: vertebrae, facial bones (zygomatic, mandible), os coxae - Short: wrist (carpals), foot (tarsals) - Long: femur, tibia, fibula, humerus, radius, ulna, metatarsals, metacarpals, phalanges - Sesamoid: patella - Divisions of human skeleton: - Axial: (80 bones); - The skull: - Cranium: - Frontal (1) - Parietal (2) - Occipital (1) - Temporal (2) - Facial bones: - Maxilla (2) - Zygomatic (2) - Nasal (2) - Mandible (1)

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Sutures: - Coronal - Sagittal The vertebral column: - Cervical vertebrae - Thoracic vertebrae - Lumbar vertebrae - Sacrum - 5 fused bones - Coccyx - 3-5 fused bones Thorax: - Sternum: (1) - Manubrium - Body - Xiphoid process - Ribs: (24) - True ribs (1-7) - False ribs (8-12) - Costal cartilage

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Appendicular: - Upper extremities: - Pectoral Girdle: - Clavicle (2) - Scapula (2) - Upper arm: - Humerus (2) - Forearm: - Radius (2) - Ulna (2) - Hand: - Carpals (16 - 8 carpal bones make up the wrist)

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Metacarpals (10 - 5 metacarpal bones make up the palm of the hand) - Phalanges (28 - 14 phalanges comprise the finger bones) Lower extremities: - Pelvic girdle - Os Coxa (2) - ilium, ischium and pubis - Thigh/knee - Femur (2) - Patella (2) - the largest sesamoid bone in the body - Leg: - Tibia (2) - Fibula (2) - Foot: - Tarsals (14- 7 tarsals in the foot) - Metatarsals ( 10 - 5 metatarsal bones form the sole of the foot) - Phalanges (28 - 14 phalanges make up the toes bones)

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Part 4: - Ligament - a band of dense connective tissue that connects bones to form a joint - Tendon - a band of dense connective tissue that connects muscle to bone - Joints: Joint type

Definition

Examples

Condylar

Two knuckle-shaped

Knee - femur and tibia

Lab practical 2 surfaces articulate with a concave surface

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Gliding

Flat or slightly curved surfaces; sliding movements

Wrist (carpals) and ankle (tarsals)

Hinge

Concave surfaces articulates with convex surface

Elbow, finger, toe

Pivot

permits rotation of one wrist: Radius/ulna bone about another Neck: atlas/axis

Spheroidal

Rounded end of bone articulates with cupshaped socket

shoulder and hip

Suture

immovable joint; bones interlock

Skull - cranial bones

Body movements: - flexion: bending at a joint (or spine) resulting in a decrease of the angle of the joint - extension: straightening at a joint (or spine) resulting in an increase of the angle of the joint - abduction: to move an appendage away from the midline of the body - adduction to move an appendage toward the midline of the body - supination: to turn the palm upward - pronation: to turn the palm downward - dorsiflexion: flexing the foot upward - plantar flexion: flexion of the toes moving the foot downward

Lab practical 2 LAB 2 (227-231): - Body planes: - Frontal: a lengthwise plane, perpendicular to the midsagittal plane that divides the body into dorsal and ventral halves - Transverse: a horizontal plane that divides the body into upper and lower halves - Sagittal: an off-center longitudinal plane creating unequal left and right halves - Midsagittal (median): a longitudinal plane along the midline that divides the body lengthwise into externally symmetrical right and left halves - Orientations: indicate a direction relative to a body part or body plane - Human: - anterior or ventral: toward the abdomen - posterior or dorsal: toward the back - superior or cranial: toward the head - inferior or caudal: toward the feet - medial: toward the midline of the body - lateral: away from the midline of the body - proximal: closer to the point of attachment to the body (as for appendages) - distal: farther from the point of attachment to the body - Fetal pig: - anterior or cranial: toward the head - posterior or caudal: toward the tail - ventral: toward the abdomen - medial: toward the midline of the body - lateral: away from the midline of the body - rostral: toward the tip of the nose - proximal: closer to the point of attachment to the body (as for appendages) - distal: farther from the point of attachment to the body

Lab practical 2 External anatomy: Region Head

Eyelid Nose, nares Pinna (Ears) Vibrissae (whiskers) Tongue, oral cavity

Trunk

Thorax

Forelimbs (shoulder, elbow, wrist, digits) Thoracic cavity internally houses heart, lungs Diaphragm, internally separates thoracic acid; abdominal cavities

Abdomen

umbilical cord mammary papillae hind limbs (knee, ankle, digits) internally houses organs of the digestive, excretory and reproductive systems Urogenital opening Anus

Tail

Tail

Lab practical 2

LAB 2 (233-243): - part 1: - Starch (sample plate - positive control/ negative control) - polysaccharide composed of glucose units in long chains - amylase starts to enzymatically break down starch in the mouth - enzymatic digestion continues in the duodenum by the enzyme pancreatic amylase - hydrolysis of starch releases maltose (disaccharide) - IODINE spot plate TEST - Yellow=negative - Black=positive - Protein breakdown by pepsin (6 test tubes) - begins in the stomach and continues in the duodenum - biuret reagent - absence of protein = blue - pink = presence of peptides - reaction with protein = purple - Digestion of fats (4 test tubes) - lipid digestion begins in the duodenum with the secretions of bile from the liver and lipase from the pancreas. - lipolysis → fatty acids and glycerol - pH indicator = phenol red - acidic - yellow

Lab practical 2

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- neutral - peach - alkaline - pink lipase breaks down fats (changes pH)

Part 2: - Anatomy of the human digestive system

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Summary of Human digestion - The digestion of food begins in the mouth by the action of the enzyme amylase secreted by the salivary gland. This enzyme begins the breakdown of starch. When you swallow, the epiglottis blocks the entrance to the larynx, and the bolus of food moves down the esophagus by muscular contractions called peristalsis. In the stomach the action of hydrochloric acid & pepsin(two components of gastric juice secreted by the stomach lining) aid in the breakdown of proteins. After leaving the stomach, the acidic mixture of partially digested food, called chyme, enters the duodenum, which is the first part of the small intestine. Here digestion is completed by the action of enzymes and secretions from the two accessory organs: the liver & the gallbladder. The acidic chyme is neutralized by bicarbonate secreted by the pancreas. Carbohydrates and protein digestion are completed by pepsin , trypsin & chymotrypsin, additional components of pancreatic secretions. Fats are first broken into smaller droplets by a process called emulsification. This is accomplished by the action of a substance called bile, which is secreted by the liver and stored in the gallbladder. The action of the enzyme lipase , which is secreted by the pancreas hydrolyzes the fat molecules. Nutrient absorption takes place in the two remaining portions of the small intestine, the jejunum & ileum. The primary function of the large intestine is to reabsorb

Lab practical 2 water. Waste is stored in the rectum until it leaves the body through the anus. LAB 3 (245-274) Part 1: - heart → arteries → arterioles → capillaries → venules → veins → heart - Arteries carry blood Away from heart - Veins carry (deoxygenated) blood to the heart - Neck region: - veins: external jugular, internal jugular vein - arteries: common carotid - Thoracic region: - Heart: - Right and left atria - Right and left ventricles - Veins: - Cranial vena cava - Caudal vena cava - Arteries: - Aortic arch/ aorta - Pulmonary artery (trunk) - Ductus arteriosus - Abdominal cavity: - Veins: - Caudal vena cava - umbilical vein - Arteries: - Abdominal aorta - Umbilical arteries - Heart anatomy: - External features: - Right and left atria - Right and left ventricles - pulmonary veins - cranial (superior) vena cava - aorta - caudal (inferior) vena cava - pulmonary trunk - coronary artery and vein

Lab practical 2

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Interior heat anatomy - right and left atria - right and left ventricles - tricuspid valve (right atrioventricular valve) - prevent backflow - bicuspid valve (left atrioventricular valve) - prevent backflow - chordae tendinae - aortic semilunar valve - myocardium (heart muscle) - papillary muscle

right atrium and right ventricle serves as pulmonary circuit left atrium and left ventricle serves as the systemic circuit

Part 2: - arteries and veins are composed of tissue layers: tunica adventitia (outer layer, composed of connective tissue and elastic fibers), tunica media (middle layer, composed of smooth muscle and some elastic fibers- thicker in ARTERIES), and tunica intima (inner layer, composed of endothelium - simple squamous epithelium)

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Diseases: - Atherosclerosis: - coronary artery disease - build-up of plaque which impairs blood flow (and oxygen) to the myocardium (heart muscle). - diet and genetic component: - “fatty streaks” - calcium deposits cause the plaque to harden - can lead to heart attack

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Sickle Cell anemia: - abnormal hemoglobin produced; in the beta chain; inefficient at carrying oxygen - WEIRD SHAPE

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Leukemia: - cancer that involves the overproduction of leukocyte; lack normal function; - CHAINS

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Blood composition: - average adult human has 5-6 liters of blood - 55% of blood is plasma - 90% water [50% overall] - 10% inorganic salts, ions, proteins (albumin, fibrinogen, immunoglobulins), hormones, and metabolic wastes [5% overall] - 45% is blood cells - blood is connective tissue - composed of 3 main classes of formed elements - erythrocytes (red blood cells) - most abundant (45%) - small flattened biconcave discs - lack a nucleus and are the primary vehicles of gas exchange - via hemoglobin - hemoglobin composed of 4 polypeptides chains (2 alpha and 2 beta) - confined to vascular system - platelets (thrombocytes): - smallest of formed elements - initiate the process of blood clotting - lack a nucleus - tiny, irregular-shaped cell fragments - leukocytes (white blood cells): - crucial defenders of body - fight infection and produce antibodies - can move out of blood vessels to seek out and destroy invaders such as bacteria, viruses, parasites, toxins, and tumor cells - small in numbers - Granulocytes - have deeply stained particles in the cytoplasm - neutrophils: nucleus has 1-5 lobes; cytoplasm contains fine, red stained granules (55-70%)

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Eosinophils: nucleus is bilobed; cytoplasm contains large, orange-red stained granules (4%) - Basophils: nucleus is typically bilobed; the cytoplasm contains purple-blue stained granules (1%) Agranulocytes - no apparent particles in the stained cytoplasm - lymphocytes: smallest; large, round, darkly stained nucleus that occupies most of the cell - monocytes: largest; nucleus is round or kidney-shaped and cell contain a large that occupies a lot of the cytoplasm

Part 3: - Blood typing: A, B, AB, O - Agglutination reactions: the clump made up of the antigen and antibody Blood type

Red blood cell diagram

Surface antigen present

serum antibodies present

can donate can blood to receive type(s) blood from type(s)

Clumping ?

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Has Aantigen

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B

A AB

A O

Clumping with antiA serum; NO clumping with antiB serum

B

Has Bantigen

B

A

B AB

B O

NO clumping with antiA serum; Clumping with antiB serum

AB\ universal acceptor

Has A and A, B B antigens

NONE

AB

A B AB O

Clumping with both anti- A and anti-B serums

Lab practical 2 O universal donor

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Has no antigens

NONE

A B

A B AB O

O

NO clumping with either serums

Rh antigen: tells whether it is positive (Rh antigen present) or whether it is negative (Rh antigen absent) stethoscope: “lub- dup” - lup = atrioventricular [av] valves - dup = semilunar valves Cardiac tissue is unique in that the cardiac muscle fibers are electronically linked and internally self-regulated by specialized regions within the myocardium sinoatrial (SA) node - origin of the cardiac impulse; located in the right atrium near the entrance of the superior vena cava atrioventricular (AV) node - located on the right side of the interatrial septum An electrocardiogram (EKG) is a recording of the electrical potential difference resulting from the depolarization and repolarization of the heart as it contracts 3 basic waveform complexes: - P wave - depolarization of the SA node, which induces atrial contraction - QRS complex - depolarization of the ventricles - T wave - repolarization of the ventricles -

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How to calculate heart rate: - 60/(r-r interval) = beats per minute blood pressure: a measure of the force exerted by blood on the elastic walls of an artery (mm Hg) - brachial artery: main artery in arm [used when taking blood pressure] systolic pressure: the pressure that the heart exerts when the ventricles are contracting diastolic pressure: the pressure when the heart is at rest - reflects health of cardiovascular system - if the blood pressure is too high it means that the blood vessels have lost their elasticity relative to the amount of blood they are carrying sphygmomanometer: apparatus used to measure blood pressure cardiac output: the amount of bl...