Learning 4 - Took this course with Professor Ming Chen. PDF

Preview

Summary

Took this course with Professor Ming Chen....

Description

Social Interactions that Promote Learning • zpd • Scaffolding • Guided Participation • Apprenticeship Learning Leads Development: Instruction Ahead of Development Instructional Techniques in ZPD The more capable other (adult or child) provides the learner with help or prompts to solve the task or address material: Demonstrations Modeling Leading Qs Scaffolding Structured assistance, or guidance, that help someone build confidence and push their limits to develop new skills and accomplish tasks. As the learner’s abilities increase, the amount of help decreases accordingly. Very similar to ZPD (Wood, Bruner, & Ross, ‘76) 30 Children: 10 – 3 yr olds 10 – 4 yr olds 10 – 5 yr olds In individual TUTORING sessions ranging from 20 min – 1 hour. 3 Year-Olds: “Tutor as Lure” 3 yr olds ignore the tutor's suggestion. – 11 tutor rejections; No rejections by 4 -5 yr olds. So more tutor interventions: – Total help: 5 yr. olds less help than 4 yr. old or 3 yr. old. Ratio of “showing” to “telling”: - 5 & 4 yr. olds more verbal assistance than 3 yr olds. A tutor for a young child has to be first concerned with inspiring them to do the task by demonstrating or tempting – the tutor must keep the goal before C’s eyes. 4 Yr Olds +“Tutor as Verbal Prodder and Corrector” Predominant mode of interaction is VERBAL. Reminding Child of task Reqs and Correcting C’s efforts. 5 Yr. Old – Tutor as Confirmer or Checker of Construction 88% of constructions of 5 year olds unassisted, tutor takes confirming role, Tutorial interventions drop by half -----------------------By 6 years of age tutor would be superfluous to this task.

Scaffolding Process – Its Functions 1. Recruitment 2. Reduction in Degrees of Freedom 3. Direction Maintenance 4. Marking Critical Features 5. Frustration Control 6. Demonstration/Modeling ZPD & Scaffolding Applied To Education Lead to the Following Educational Methods • Assisted Discovery • Peer Collaboration • Heterogeneous Student Groupings • Cooperative Learning • Reciprocal Teaching • Communities of Learners Assisted Discovery Teacher's guide children’s learning by tailoring their instruction to each child’s zpd. Peer Collaboration Assisted discovery is also fostered by peer collaboration. Classmates with varying abilities work in groups, teaching and helping one another. Heterogeneous Student Groupings & Classrooms Create student groups of mixed-ability, combining low and high-ability students. Cooperative Learning (Form of Peer Collaboration) Structuring small groups of classmates to work toward a common goal (learning task) Conflict and disagreement are less important than the extent to which peers achieve intersubjectivity by resolving differences, sharing responsibility, and engaging in cooperative dialogues. Effectiveness of Cooperative Learning Activities: • Leads to higher achievement in students of all ability levels. • Promotes higher-level thinking skills – since students think aloud and model problem-solving strategies for one another. • Higher self-efficacy. • Understand others perspectives better and engage in prosocial behavior. Disadvantages of Cooperative Learning: • Students may be interested in achieving a group reward with the least possible effort and focus more on getting the “right” answer than on ensuring that all group members understand the subject matter. • Students who do most of the work and talking may learn more.

Reciprocal Teaching (Brown & Palincsar) Teacher & 2-4 students form a collaborative learning group & take turns leading discussion on content of text passage. • Predicting - leader encourages pupils to predict upcoming event content based on clues (e.g., title; headings) in passage; • Questioning - ask themselves about content & main points in passage as they read. So monitor comprehension as they read. • Clarifying – ideas that are unfamiliar or ambiguous. • Summarizing – to capture the gist of the text. Communities of Learners (Brown, Campione, Collins) • Classrooms in which teachers and students actively and cooperatively work to help one another learn. Guiding principle is that students and teachers alike are committed to advancing the collective knowledge, skills, and understanding of all members of the classroom. Can incorporate a variety of interactive instructional strategies such as peer tutoring, reciprocal teaching, and cooperative learning. • PROJECTS – not lessons, are focus of classroom activities. Projects are complex, real world problems that require many steps in which children and adults draw on one another’s expertise and others in and outside of school. Disadvantages of Communities of Learners • What students learn is limited to knowledge they themselves acquire and share. • Students can pass on misconceptions. _____________________________________________________________________________________

Components of Language Phonology

Rules about structure and sequence of speech SOUNDS.

Semantics

Vocabulary - words and word combinations (e.g., 2-word utterances) for concepts.

Grammar

Syntax - Rules for sentences; word order Morphology - Grammatical markers (e.g., plural “s” and past tense “ed”).

Pragmatics/ Discourse

Appropriate and effective USE of language in context; communication; Linguistic units longer than a sentence (e.g., stories; conversations).

The great debate of how children acquire language is centered on the SYNTACTICAL/GRAMMATICAL aspect of language.

Three Theories of Language Development Behaviorist

Learned through operant conditioning (reinforcement) and imitation.

Nativist

Language Acquisition Device (LAD) biologically prepares infants to learn rules of language through Universal Grammar (UG).

Interactionist

Inner capacities and environment work together; Social context is important.

Learning Language How would Behaviorists, such as Skinner, say language was learned? IMITATION & REINFORCEMENT Skinner’s 1957 book “Verbal Behavior” extended operant principles to language learning. Verbal behavior conditioned and shaped by same stimuli and reinforcers that condition and shape nonverbal behavior. No special principles needed to account for language acquisition. Chomsky Critique of Verbal Behavior • Problem with Skinner’s Functional Analysis is that he concerns himself with input-output data records (that too on lower organisms). • Hence misses out on the internal makeup of complex organisms, which is inborn, genetically controlled and highly complex. • Reinforcement isn’t a single factor necessary for language acquisition. Complex, genetically controlled mechanisms are at work. • Response is not dependent on Stimulus, for we cannot identify a Stimulus until we know about the Response. • Describing behavior in well-defined and controlled conditions of the laboratory can’t be easily applied to complex processes like language. Chomsky – On Cognitive Capacity Chomsky claims on child language acquisition (also seen in his critique of Skinner’s Verbal Behavior): Normal Child Acquires Language: 1. On relatively slight exposure. 2. Without specific training. 3. Can then effortlessly make use of an intricate structure of specific rules and guiding principles. Chomsky: Innateness of Language How can we gain such rich systems of knowledge, given our fragmentary and impoverished experience? (Version of Betrand Russell 1948Q). Nativism Has a Basis in 17th Century Rationalist View Rationalists propose “Innate Ideas” or “Common Notions.” These include “relational ideas” or “relative notions,” such as Cause, Effect, Whole and Part, etc.

We interpret experience as we do because of our specific mental design. The mind provides a general schematism that delimits the cognitive structures developed on the basis of experience. Universal Grammar (UG) • U.G. – System of principles, conditions, rules that are elements or properties of all human beings, not by accident, but by biological necessity. • UG = Essence of human language; invariant among humans; specifies what language learning must achieve • Insight into U.G – gained when find properties of language that are not learned Ex: Process of Question Forming The man is tall. Is the man tall?

Hypothesis #1 – Structure Independent Rule; Analyze sentences into words. Go along to tell a hit verb like “is” (first verb) and shift it to the beginning of the sentence. BUT, Hyp #1 leads to error: • The man who is tall is in the room. • Is the man who is tall in the room? Need Hypothesis #2 - Structure Dependent rule; Analyze sentences into phrases. C analyses declarative sentences into abstract phrases. Locates the first occasion of “is” that follows the first NP, then shifts this occurrence. • {The man who is tall} is in the room. • Is the man who is tall in the room? Phrases are “abstract” – not physically marked. Hyp 2 – More Complex. How come children unerringly make use of it? Can’t explain kids good performance in terms of: 1. Communicative efficiency. 2. That children are trained. 3. In fact, have a lot of experience consistent with Hyp #1. Can only conclude that U.G. contains the principle that all such rules must be structure-dependent. • Child’s mind contains the instruction – “construct a structure-dependent rule. Ignoring all structure –independent rules.” • The principle of structure – dependent is not learned, but forms part of the conditions for language learning. • Rules of all languages are structure-dependent. Implications of Chomsky’s View Biological Basis for Language

Support for Biological Language Preparedness Brain structures - Regions predisposed to language processing. Sensitive-Critical Period for Acq - During brain lateralization. Species-Specificity - Language seems to be unique to humans. Language Areas of the Brain Broca’s Area – Responsible for speech production, language processing, and language comprehension. People suffering from damage to this area may show a condition called Broca's aphasia (sometimes known as expressive aphasia, motor aphasia, or nonfluent aphasia), which makes them unable to create grammatically-complex sentences. They have thoughts/ideas, but trouble expressing them. Wernicke’s Area – Involved in the understanding and comprehension of spoken language. Damage to this area could cause a type of aphasia that is now called Wernicke's aphasia or receptive aphasia. Lateralization of Cerebral Cortex Left Hemisphere • Sensory information and control of the right side of the body. • Verbal abilities. • Positive emotion. • Sequential, analytical processing. Right Hemisphere • Sensory information and control of the left side of the body. • Spatial abilities. • Negative emotion. • Holistic, integrative processing. Brain Plasticity In infants and young children, parts of the brain are not yet specialized. Recover better from brain injury. - Language recovers better than spatial skills. - Still have some problems with complex mental skills. Older children, even adults, have some plasticity. Critical Period “Critical Period Hypothesis” states that the crucial period of language acquisition ends around the age of 12 years (puberty). The first few years of life are the crucial time in which an individual can acquire a first language if presented with adequate stimuli. If language input doesn't occur until after this time, the individual will never achieve a full command of language — especially grammatical systems.

Critical Period presumes brain basis for learning. Brain has plasticity and is not fully lateralized prior to puberty. “GENIE” (alias) Wiley • Born 1957 • At 20 mos, sadistic father took her into his care. • 11 years in solitary confinement. • Nov ’70 – this abused 13 year old girl discovered inadvertently as a partially blind mother, Irene, looking for services for the blind, stumbled into the General Social Services Office instead, with Genie in hand. • 59 lbs; 54 inches. • Since age 2 – confined to a small bedroom in back of the house; harnessed to an infant potty seat by day; constrained in a straight-jacket like sleeping bag placed in an infant crib/cage with wire-mesh sides and top. Punished if she made any sounds. Genie had Almost no Experience (auditory stimulation) with Language Environment Little to listen to – father and older brother did not speak to her; father had an intolerance for noise, so no TV, no Radio, very little conversation in house and at low volume. Very little other stimulation – tactile (only items in room were potty seat and crib) or visual (windows covered except for very top where sky visible from one and side of neighboring house visible from other; dim ceiling lightbulb). Given a few items to handle – edited TV guide, empty cottage cheese container, empty thread spools. Genie, Age 13, when found. She was taken into protective custody and hospitalized for malnutrition. Was in hospital for about 7 mos (Nov ‘70 –July ‘71) where she improved dramatically. Physically – Gained weight and height and breast development. Cognitive Growth - Rapid over 7 mos, Vineland score (non-verbal cog test) improved from 15-42 mos; on the Leiter Scale, another such test, 6 mos after admission, she passed all items at 4-year-level, two at the 5-year-level, 2 of 4 at the 7-year-level. Emotionally – Changing relationships with people and and increasing capacity for emot expression. State of Language When Admitted to Hospital Curtiss, who was a doctoral student of Victoria Fromkin of UCLA at the time, and did her dissertation on Genie, reports: Little evidence she acquired any language. She did not speak and seemed to have little control over organs of speech and, even for non-speech functions, had deficits in muscular control when chewing and swallowing. State of her Language After 5 Mos in Hospital (April) Limited PRODUCTIVE VOCAB – USE OF SINGLE WORDS SPONTANEOUSLY

Fewer than 20 words; Color Words - red, green, blue, brown; Number Words – 1 to 5 Specific Noun – “Mama” Verb Forms - “nomore,” “stopit,” “spit” Contrasts with inventory of words and first words of normally developing child – typically nouns and particles (e.g., ”up,” “down”) and no color words and numbers. After about 7 Mos in Hospital (June ‘71) Two-Word Grammar Emerged (Not a Pivot-Open System described by Braine) “Hurt cat; “cat hurt”; “father no more”; “no more father” (same word used in different positions). Two-Word Combinations showed knowledge of Semantic and Syntactic Relations. Her early Verb + Noun Constructions may express: Verb + Object (”want milk”) Verb + Subject (“hurt hospital”) Nov ‘71 – Produced Sentences of 3-4 Words on Rare Occasions Which display some cognitive complexity not found in normally developing children’s speech Valerie mother coat Valerie mother purse Little white clear box And reveal that they are not based in imitation (adult speech) Small two cup Little bad boy Feb ‘72 – Negative Sentences Emerged Consist in negative element (no more) affixed to either a: Noun or a noun + verb No more father. No more wax. No more have. Nov ‘72 – Grammatical Markers/Morphemes Emerge Preposition “on” – Where is your toy radio? Genie: “on chair”. Progressive “ing” – Genie laughing, Curtiss coughing. Genie’s Language Limitations – Never acquired Complex Grammar - Stayed with 2 word utterances - Couldn’t form a negative sentence Ex. “No have toy”. She could not bury the negative within the sentence: “I not have toy”.

-

-

Nor add a supporting verb: “I do not have a toy.” Could not ask a real Q - a WhQ ( could comprehend them) Ex. Where is may I have a penny? Ex. I Where is graham cracker on top shelf? No movement transformation The train is coming [soon]. When is the train coming? Problems w/Pronouns– “I” favorite form; you/me interchangeable.

The Sad End • 1974 - time for a grant renewal to provide financial support for studying Genie. N.I.M.H did not approve the grant based on lack of progress and unrealistic goals. • Jean Butler encouraged Genie’s mother to sue the team for “cruel treatment”. • Genie moved back in with her mother, who quickly realized she could not care for her. • Genie placed back into foster care system and was in five more homes, one of which she was beaten in, this time for vomiting. Genie responded by not opening her mouth for several months. Unfortunately, she began to deteriorate both physically and mentally. • Genie now lives in an adult foster care home in Southern California. She still cannot use language any more appropriately than she could in 1974. Language Input Child Hears “Motherese” “Child-Directed Speech” (Catherine Snow) Chomsky incorrect that input was ill-formed, w/mistakes, garbles, ungrammaticality. The language children hear is not impoverished and fragmented. It is simpler and more grammatical than speech addressed to adults. Also highly redundant. _____________________________________________________________________________________ The Critical Period Hypothesis (CPH) (Lenneberg, 1967) Primary language acquisition must occur during a critical period which ends about the age of puberty with the establishment of cerebral lateralization of function. Primary evidence – complete recovery from acquired/traumatic aphasia (e.g., from damage to the brain due to head injury) is possible for children but not for adults. A Critical Period for 2nd Language Acquisition: Evidence from 2/3 million English Speakers Participants Internet users. Interesting online native language guessing. Widely spreading. Participants who did not report speaking English from birth were asked at what age they began learning English, how many years they had lived in an English Speaking country, and whether any immediate family members were native speakers of English....