Lecture Notes, Lecture All, Steve Stifano PDF

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Comm1000 Communication as a Science This lecture focused on the ways people approach the study of communication. As such, the content of this course primarily originates from work using these approaches, concepts and methods. Humanistic Vs. Social Scientific Approaches Rhetoric, Interpretivists, Critical Scholar Qualitative Vs. Quantitative Qualitative: Employs rigorous observational rules, work in the field, data collect, rich in detail. Quantitative: uncovers patterns via numbers, advanced statistical techniques, can work in lab or field, gather data to support or reject hypothesis The scientific method: Define & Examples Methods used Content analysis: systematic analysis of the content of communication messages Purpose: Describes frequency of a behavior compares behavior types/rates across different contexts Weaknesses: Requires a representative sample Requires Coding. Limited to what is happening now Survey : Finds correlation to other answers Relies on self-report examines Relationship between variables Examples: Relationship questionnaire, attitude surveys, media habits Weaknesses: need representative sample questions must be of high-quality no control over variables only relationships, no conclusions Experiment: Manipulation of variables (placebo) Control of variables Measures effect/outcome of manipulation Weaknesses: drawing casual conclusions Requires random assignment to conditions

Reliability vs. Validity multiple questions + consistency / accuracy + how well the question is asked

Perception Define Perception: o Dispositional Other 

To make sense of something that happened

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We put the blame on others 

Ex. Joe failed the test because he’s lazy

o Self-Serving Bias 

Overuse of situational attributions with self 

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Ex. You fail the test and stop blaming Joe and start blaming the test

We use this to protect ourselves

Self-Concept: your relatively stable impressions of yourself, includes not only your perception of your physical characteristics but also your judgment about what you “have been, are and aspire to be” Looking Glass Self- develops out of our relations and interactions with others. You evaluate yourself primarily on the basis of how you think others perceive and evaluate you. Self-Expansion Model- is like when are told to go to school and meet people Social Comparison- Kelly is smarter than all her classmates. But we put Kelly in a new school and now she’s not as smart as her classmate. In the first environment she is on top and in the second environment she is on the bottom. This will affect how Kelly acts Self-Esteem: feedback often has a direct effect on level of self-esteem. Self-fulfilling prophecy- Their own expectations so that a favorable self-concept may lead to success, an unfavorable self-concept to failure.  

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Through what channels we send messages through is an important concept o Verbally, locally, text message, phone call, etc. Model of Human Communication o Message travels through a channel o There may be an interference o On the other side, the receiver processes the message o That message then goes through a channel, it may be the same channel or a different one o The message faces some type of interference o Process starts over Interpersonal Communication o How do you talk to yourself?

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o Shapes how we interact with others because we already make observations about people o This includes perception, how we make impressions/conclusions about people o Psychology o Dyadic communication is communication between two people o Relationships (friends, coworkers) and romantic relationships are both part of interpersonal communication Small Group Communication o Teams, clubs, etc. o Groups miss things because they all agree with one another Public Communication o Any time you have an individual communicating with a large group of people o You talk differently to a single person than you do to a huge group Health Communication o How a doctor communicates with a patient is very important to explain what is going to happen or what treatment they are going to undergo o They want the patients to come back regularly so they can monitor the patients

1/28/15  Humanistic Approach to Communication o Rhetoric: A basis for public speaking, the idea of addressing large crowds, and looking at the ways in which people speak o Interpretivists: Take an event and try to find out what has happened, understanding the world by looking at the different events that occur in it, ex. 911 and the media coverage o Critical Scholars: Understand how power works and spreads throughout a society, talk about what’s right and wrong in America  Social Scientific Approach to Communication o Qualitative: Rigorous observational rules, actually get outside and work “in the field” (talk to individuals, study from a distance), collect data and try to make sense of things from what they believe (their own perspective), this data is highly detailed o Quantitative: Tries to uncover patterns, study large groups of people in order to see the patterns among these people, uses advanced statistical techniques and numbers, usually collect data in the lab instead of “in the field”  Scientific Method is: o Empirical o Objective o Logical

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Three Research Designs o Content Analysis: Analysis of the content of communication messages

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Selective Attention o We are more likely to not notice other things happening around us when we are busy focusing on something specific Filters o Changes the light of the photograph o Shape our perception and shape what we see in photos o We have perceptual filters to shape how we see things o Age and experience shape the way that we see things o Perceptual filters include some physical and physiological limits o We also have physiological sets for expectations that shape experiences o The expectations that we build shape how we react to something Perception is active o Select, Organize, Interpret o Selection  When asked to focus on something specific, like your arms, you focus on your arms when you weren’t normally before  This is an active process  We select stimuli that are particularly intense  Things that change get our attention o Organization  How was the lecture, how fast did it go by, etc.  When something happens that’s unordinary, we organize that o Interpret  Exactly what we saw and what we’re going to take away from it  We give it meaning

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Ex. Selection: Which play are you going to focus on? Organize: What are you seeing? Interpret: Why did they let that happen?

Attribution o Trying to make sense of things, the act of asking “Why?” o Seek some understanding of people and their behavior o Bias  Self attribution tends to differ from other attribution  We claim that our actions happen because of the situation that we are in; we try to justify our actions

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 He made me drop the ball because he threw it poorly  Others act a certain way because of who they are  Ex. He dropped the ball because he sucks o Dispositional Other  To make sense of something that happened  We put the blame on others  Ex. Joe failed the test because he’s lazy o Self-Serving Bias  Overuse of situational attributions with self  Ex. You fail the test and stop blaming Joe and start blaming the test  We use this to protect ourselves Impression Formation o We tend to form an impression about someone o Some people think friendliness is more important, some people think attractiveness is more important Impressions of Self o Self Concept  Self-Expansion Model is like when we are told to go to school and meet people  Social Comparison- Kelly is smarter than all her classmates. But we put Kelly in a new school and now she’s not as smart as her classmate. In the first environment she is on top and in the second environment she is on the bottom. This will effect how Kelly acts  Self-fulfilling Prophecy- Whether you say you can or can’t is right. If you think you can graduate from college, you will try your best and motivate yourself to graduate and you probably will. If you go into college thinking you won’t graduate, you probably won’t because you don’t try Impressions of Others o The Primacy Effect- What happens first. The first words they say, whether they smile or not, whether they shake your hand, all play a role. The first few days meeting someone are very important. This is important in telling whether you will like the person or not o Attractiveness plays a role. People that are more attractive have an advantage in social situations. o Expressiveness- when you communicate with someone else, how do you act? There is a big difference with being creative or being dull. This impacts how you view another person. For males, one thing stands out. Large smiles. Stereotyping o A generalization about a class of people, objects, or events that is widely held by a given culture

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o You may or may not have stereotypes for certain people in a huge lecture because there are so many people o Stereotypes can sometimes be seen as positive or neutral  It all depends on how you view the stereotype, are there benefits and drawbacks to stereotyping? Yes. The good is that it helps us categorize the world, quicker routes to making sense of things. But it is bad because we categorize people and don’t see them as individuals. The result of that is that people have to fit within a particular group Social Roles o Work role- You are expected to do certain things by your boss o Student role- Different expectations, you are expected to retain more information, but you don’t need to dress as formal as in a work role o Gender-linked role- If you are a man or woman, there are things that are expected of you. “Lady-like” or “be a man”. o Marital role- Sometimes the roles of the wife and husband conflict with all the other roles. You are told to “be a man” but then again that may not be the best role to play within a martial role  Sometimes our roles collide with other roles Accuracy of Perceptions o Sometimes our perceptions are not accurate o Context o Interpersonal Sensitivity  Some people that you’re close with pick up on your mood while people that aren’t close to you don’t o Flexible Expectations  The more flexible you are, it limits your biases o Awareness of Limitations  Limit your expectations, there will always be blind spots

02/11/15 Verbal communication: a system of symbols and codes used to construct and convey messages. Symbol: refer to referent (the object the symbol refers to) It has no actual meaning besides the meaning we give to it. EX: Like a handicap sign.

Words mean nothing without the connotations we add to it. EX: Puppy means nothing

until everyone agrees that a puppy, is thought symbol

Refer Denotative meaning: Dictionary definition of a word Connotative Meaning: the interpreted meaning behind a word. Cocky, nitpicking, pushy, stingy, cheap sound much worse than confident, meticulous, assertive, economical and inexpensive Code switching: When we use different vernacular in different situations Sapir-Whorf Hypothesis- The language we use shapes the way we see the world. Strong Determinism- Language determines the thoughts we have. The words we use, the words we have, determine the way we see the world (period) Weak Determinism: Language helps shape it but it is not the sole determinant. (More accepted) Language Issues: Abstract/vague language: Ex: I’ll be home early. Home before dark, or home before you go to bed. Inferences: We conclude something that may not be fully true. It is interpreted differently. Dichotomies: Contrasts, because someone says you are not beautiful, you think you are ugly Equivocal Language: Same words, different meaning Euphemisms: Soft language to protect them. (Ex: Shell shock, battle fatigue, operational exhaustion, post-traumatic stress disorder; all mean the same thing, but sound better) Sexism and Language There are more words to describe woman than man, but there are more good words to describe man than to describe women. Language ultimately puts men on a higher pedestal. Chairman, not chairperson Power and Language Hedge: I think, I guess, maybe, I’m not sure, even though you do know. Disclaimers, unconfident. Powerful terms: I know, I will, it is. It is much more definitive, confident. Metacommunication: To communicate about how we communicate.

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Nonverbal communication can complement, regulate, substitute for, contradict, and illustrate verbal communication Methods of Communication Paralanguage o “It’s not what you say, it’s how you say it” o Ex. “I didn’t steal her purse”, this indicates that you stole something else, it wasn’t hers it was someone else’s, you didn’t steal it o Emphasize certain words in the sentence and there will be different meanings Objectics o The study of appearance and artifacts o Ex. When you show up to a first date and you show up looking dirty, that communicates that you’re not interested. If you show up overdressed, it communicates that you are overeager (personal appearance) o Ex. A person buys a nice cell phone when they don’t need a cell phone that nice, they do this to communicate that they have the money to buy the cell phone (artifacts/items) Proxemics o The use of space, distance, or territory to convey a message o Ex. A professor walking around a room when giving a lecture, it communicates that it is the professors space and not your own o Ex. When two people are fighting, they usually get close together o Edward T. Hall  Intimate (0-18’)- Our private space. Intimate space is reserved for ourselves and those we are intimate with  Personal (18”-4’)- When talking to friends, talking to a professor  Social (4’-12’)- Hanging out with a big group and everyone is spread out, being in a large room, etc.  Public (12’ or more)Orientation o How we use space to send messages o Ex. If two people sit at opposite sides of the table even when the table is very long, this could communicate that the people are butting heads (competition) o Ex. If two people sit side by side when the table is very long, this could show cooperation Haptics

The study of touch Important to regulating our social relationships and romantic ones Instrumental touch- we touch for a specific reason Ex. If you’ve been married a long time, you overlook some touching, but if you’re single and a guy touches you, you could overanalyze Kinesics o The study of our gestures and facial expressions o Ex. When you raise your eyebrows, this could indicate that you are surprised or have a question o Body movement & Gestures  Body movement includes posture  Context and culture of the situation is important  Body language  Emblems- gestures that substitute for words, logos for what the word meaning  Illustrators- Using gestures like showing how big something is when saying how big it is  Regulators- A motion that shows someone else when to start or stop talking  Adaptors- Twirling your hair, tapping a pen, these are subtle things that we do to adapt to situation  Affect displays- Show of emotion, the body language we give off when we want to show emotion Oculesics o The study of eye contact and eye gaze  Regulates our speaking and verbal cues  When we are speaking, we don’t give as much eye contact  When we are listening, we give more eye contact. This signals that your attention is devoted to this person  Eye contact can show power or dominance Chronemics o Chronology is time, chronemics is studying time in communication o Ex. When you text someone and they text right back, or when they take 5 hours. What does it indicate o Ex. If someone shows up late to an important meaning, it means they don’t care. If they show up early, it means they find it very important o Monochronic orientation- Tend to approach things one at a time. Ex. You are in lecture, if someone keeps calling you, it is offensive. It is only not offensive if it is an emergency. o o o o

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Ex. If you have plans, you expect the person to keep the plans o Polychronic orientation- Tend to do multiple things at once. Family, work, relationships, etc. all at once. They are used to interruptions. If someone wants to talk, they will stop what they’re doing and talk. Whereas monochromic will not. 

02/18/14 Verbal vs. Nonverbal 

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Emotion o You can’t just look at one person, you have to look at everyone o These help to shape social order o The way we react in situation is instinct, like when we jump up and down after winning the Superbowl, etc.  When we take pictures in a Haunted House, we are not concerned with how we look when we scream. We are scared so instinct kicks in Spontaneous Communication o When you are scared, you get tense, your blood rushes, and you get ready to sprint away o They are not voluntary, they happen on their own Symbolic Communication o Socially shared, we have to know what appropriate dress is so that we know what to wear o Symbols are arbitrary, taking something and making it mean more than it normally would mean (like a stapler) o Includes nonverbal behaviors Spontaneous vs. Symbolic Three Types of emotion o Bodily adaption and maintenance of homeostasis  If someone is drowning you, even if you want to die, you will always fight back no matter what. It is a bodily reaction.  Your body naturally figures out what it needs to do in order to stay alive o The external expression of motivational/emotional states o The subjective experience of motivational/emotional states  It allows us to reflect and learn, ex. “I feel” Six different faces of emotion o These help us communicate signals that we need in order to survive Nonverbal Sending Accuracy

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o Some people naturally make faces that are more understood by some rather than others Nonverbal Receiving Ability o When you see someone’s face, can you pick up on their emotion and what they’re feeling? Some people are better at doing this than others Pseudospontaneous Communication o Looking surprised even though you know it’s going to happen  Ex. When you act surprised for your surprise birthday, but you already knew it was going to happen  We are good at detecting that someone is faking Deception of Others o Sometimes we lie to others because we don’t want to hurt their feelings, sometimes we lie because we are cheating and don’t want our spouse to find out Deception of Self o Repression: We are trying to block something out. Ex. Firefighters during 911 were repressing their emotions in order to do their job o Coping: Making sense of what we feel. This is an emotional process. We label the different experiences that we are having. There are times that we can discuss our emotional reactions and learn how to work through it. Emotional Education o We learn how to understand emotions, we label them, and then we learn how to deal with them. Developmental Interactionist Theory o The emotional experiences are always there, we are just learning how to cope with them. o As we move from left to right, we start to reason with it more o Simple creatures are like dogs, complex creatures are like humans o Ex. IF you are involved in air travel and you get notified that your luggage is lost, you will be on the right side and think about what you need to do. But if your child is lost, you are moving much more towards the left. Interpersonal Communication Chapter 8 Interpersonal Communication: Communication that occurs between at least two interdependent parties Public Communication: Large crowd Norms: To allow us to become accustomed to our environments. They meet our expectancy. Norms hel...