Metaphysics - Lecture notes all PDF

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Aristotle – Nichomachean Ethics · Background: A. Born in Macedonia B. Teacher of Alexander the Great C. Author of many treatises…on everything! D. Disciple and challenger of Plato o Rejects theory of Forms o Believed what exists are individual substances o Thought the end of the good life consists in happiness o Happiness requires that we acquire a set of virtues (education) · Discussion: A. What is the thesis that Aristotle examines? o Aristotle examines the thesis that “no one is voluntarily wicked, nor involuntarily happy.” B. Which part of it does he accept? Which one does he reject? o He accepts that no one is involuntarily happy but rejects the idea of being involuntarily wicked. He believes it is our choice to do evil and that no one is encouraged to do things involuntarily. C. What is the thesis he wants to argue for? o Aristotle wants to argue for the idea that we are in control of our actions and that no one pushes us to act in an evil manner. D. How does he argue for it (find out his different arguments)? o He says that those who have completed noble acts are honored while those who complete wicked acts are punished. The nature of these encouragements or discouragements supports the idea that we choose whether to act evil or not. We do not encourage others to be hungry or hurt since these are things out of their control. E. Why is ignorance not an excuse according to him? o He rejects ignorance as an excuse because he believes one chooses to be ignorant, rather than to be knowledgeable. Since we have the ability to “take

care” and make the right decisions, we also have the ability to not be ignorant. F. For him, what are we responsible for? o We are responsible for being unjust or self-indulgent. Ultimately, we are responsible for our own behaviors and characteristics. Actions express who we are and are the basis for who we become. G. How does he prove it? o He proves this by using the examples of someone who gets drunk often as well as someone who is training for a contest. Each individual knows the actions they are committing are going to have a certain result, therefore causing them to become either a drunk or a well-performed contestant. H. What is the implication of this conception of responsibility for the problem of evil? o Aristotle implies that once a man chooses to do evil, he becomes an evil being. Therefore, he can not undo this. It is as if he has lost his chance to do good à “But now that they have become so it is not possible for them not to be so.” We could have researched what we were going to do to not do evil. However, this would mean that since we are committing this evil, we want to commit evil which may not always be true. He says that knowledge is necessary to avoid evil but it may not be enough to not act evil. I. Do you agree with Aristotle? Why/why not? o I mostly disagree with Aristotle. I believe an individual can choose whether to engage in evil activity if they know that they are going to do something evil. However, if they are ignorant and do not realize that what they are doing is evil, they lack the knowledge that would prevent them from engaging in these actions. That being said, I do think that an ignorant person should seek to educate themselves before making a decision regarding a topic they are not knowledgeable about. As far as the problem of evil, I do not think that someone is permanently evil once they do something evil. I think it is possible for someone to learn from their mistakes and show remorse for their wrongs, overcoming this evil. · Summary on Aristotle’s position: A. Examines Plato’s thesis: no one commits evil voluntarily B. Two meanings: o We never want to be miserable or to hurt ourselves (Aristotle would agree) o We never want to hurt others (Aristotle rejects) C. Rejects the second meaning: men can be wicked voluntarily

o Arguments: 1. Laws punish men only for what they do voluntarily and they punish evil deeds à evil deeds are voluntary 2. We encourage others to be good and to refrain from committing evil deeds à we can decide how to behave 3. Ignorance is not an excuse à men are responsible for what they know and ignore D. Aristotle’s general thesis: o Men are responsible for: 1. What they do, as long as they can act differently 2. Their way of life and moral character à virtues and vices are acquired through time and action (this would mean we become good people by committing good actions) o Most of the time, evil comes from a slack way of life o In this respect, we are responsible for it à you are what you do E. Evaluation of Aristotle’s position: o We may be responsible for our deeds o That does not mean we wanted what we did o Does not really answer the question “can we want to commit evil for itself?” II. St. Augustine’s Answer – The Confessions · Background A. Born in current Algeria B. 354 – 430 C. Received a humanist education in Carthage à discovered philosophy and Manichaeism D. Converted to Christianity in 386 E. Became priest and then Bishop of Hippo in 396 F. Wrote The Confessions and The City of God G. Considered a Father of the Church

· Discussion questions: A. How does Augustine define theft? o Augustine defines theft as going against moral law. B. What is the problem he then points at and what makes it especially intractable? o The problem with this is that although we may be aware of the moral law, we may still act wrongly. We can do wrong while knowing that we are doing so. C. According to Augustine, what were his motives for stealing the pears? o It was not because he was hungry or impoverished but because of a contempt of well-doing and a strong impulse to iniquity. It was pleasurable because it was forbidden. There is no temptation to commit the act but the concept of committing evil itself. D. What do these motives reveal? o We may commit evil for no reason other than the pleasure that comes from it. “Seeking nothing from the shameful deed but shame itself.” E. Why do we usually commit crimes according to him? o We commit crimes to seek revenge, to do an ultimate good, or in fear of losing something according to Augustine. F. What makes his theft darker than the crimes of Catiline? o He says that Catiline was supplying the needs for his family by gaining honors, empires, and wealth. He, on the other hand, is not gaining anything from committing the evil besides the enjoyment of committing evil in itself. G. What role do his friends play in his theft? o When friends are involved, they provide companionship and enhance the wrongdoings. It is likely that the evil act may not have been committed if the friends were not there to join in as well. Friends can convince you to do evil rather than good. “We are ashamed not to be shameless.” The group is creating his own moral standards and if you do not follow these moral standards, he will feel excluded. H. Why is it so important for Augustine to confess his crime and the motives behind it? o He wants to be forgiven so that he may have a clear consciousness. Doing so will allow him to regain righteousness and innocence. He will then be able to do good and eventually have perfect rest with God.

I. What do you find interesting or relevant in Augustine’s thesis? o His thesis is that we commit evil because we gain pleasure from the sense of freedom that committing evil brings us. It is sometimes true that areas that have restrictions on certain things may experience more resistance than in areas that do not. J. Give an example that would illustrate Augustine’s thesis. o Egging someone’s house just because it’s fun. o Going against what your parent says just to show you can. · Summary on Augustine’s position: A. Thesis: we can commit evil for the sake of it for committing evil can be a source of pleasure o The pleasure comes from the transgression of the moral law (sin): a law written in our heart by God 1. When we transgress from it, we emancipate from it and experience our freedom as human beings o The pleasure is enhanced by the presence and approbation of other people 1. The group creates its own values and encourages conformity B. A Christian anthropology (IS NOT Greek anthropology) o A pessimistic view of man o Men have fallen because of the original sin: their will is corrupted o They are separated from themselves: blind (we don’t always know what is good) and weak (we can fail even if we know) o They cannot be good without God’s help: they must turn to God for support III. Monsters or Ordinary Men: Who are the perpetrators of evil deeds? · Why we love the monster hypothesis… A. The idea of the monster o Etymology: Latin verb “monstranum” à to point at o Biology: an exception, a case that does not conform to the norms of development of its species o Often considered ugly, shapeless

o By extension, someone who does not conform to the prevailing norms of a society and commits actions that the majority condemns o A physical and a moral aspect B. Historical figures o From people with physical malformations to criminals C. The drawing power of this idea o The monster is always the other o To describe someone as a monster prevents any identification with him o It is a way for us to protect our own image · Why this hypothesis is not fully convincing… A. “Monsters” are human beings B. Crimes are not always committed by monsters o See the horrors of the 20th century: 1. Extermination camps 2. Massacres and genocides 3. Torture C. Primo Levi, If This Is A Man (1947) o “Monsters exist, but they are too few in number to be truly dangerous. More dangerous are the common men, the functionaries read to believe and to act without asking questions.” o The philosophical problem concerns the common men à How can ordinary good men commit extraordinary atrocities? IV. Hannah Arendt and the Banality of Evil (The Answer of Philosophy) · Background A. An American political theorist B. Born in Germany in a Jewish family C. Studied philosophy with Heidegger, Husserl, Jaspers D. Flew to France in 1933, was imprisoned in 1940, escaped to the U.S. in 1941

Obtained the American citizenship in 1951 and became invited to prestigious schools, eventually became a professor...