Midterm 1 Notes - TRU online BIOL 1593. Includes modules 1-4, learning outcomes and textbook materials PDF

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Warning: TT: undefined function: 32 Warning: TT: undefined function: 32 Module 1: An Introduction to the Human Body 1. Define anatomy and physiology. - Anatomy – study of structure and the relationships among structures - Physiology – study of how body structures function. 2. Describe the 6 differen...

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Module 1: An Introduction to the Human Body 1. Define anatomy and physiology. - Anatomy – study of structure and the relationships among structures - Physiology – study of how body structures function. 2. Describe the 6 different levels of organization in the human body. - Chemical level – consist of related organs that have a common function includes atoms—the smallest units of matter that participate in chemical reactions —and molecules, which are two or more atoms joined - Cellular level – cells are the basic structural and functional living units of an organism - Tissue level – consist of groups of similarly specialized cells and the substances surrounding them that usually arise from a common ancestor and perform certain special functions (epithelial, connective, muscular, and nervous tissue) - Organ level – structures of definite form that have specific functions, and are composed of two or more different tissues - System level – consist of related organs that have a common function - Organismal level – consist of related organs that have a common function 3. List and describe the 11 major body systems, and state the general function of each. System Components Functions Integumentary

Skin: hair, nails, sweat glands, oil glands

Skeletal

Bones, joins, associated cartilages

Muscular

Skeletal muscle tissue (attached to bones)

Nervous

Brain, spinal cord, nerves, sense organs: eyes, ears

Endocrine

Glands, tissues (that produce hormones)

Cardiovascular

Blood, heart, blood vessels

Helps regulate body temperature Protects the body Eliminates some wastes Helps make vitamin D Detects sensations: touch, pressure, pain, warmth, cold Stores fat Provides insulation Supports and protects the body Provides specific area of muscle attachment Assists with body movements Stores cells that produce blood cells Stores minerals and lipids Participates in body movements Maintains posture Produces heat Regulates body activities through nerve impulses by detecting changes in the environment Interpreting the changes Responding to changes by bringing about muscular contractions or glandular secretions Regulates body activities through hormones transported by the blood to various target organs Heart pumps blood through blood vessels Blood carries oxygen and nutrients to cells and carbon dioxide and wastes from cells and helps regulate acidity, temperature, and water content of body fluids Blood components help defend against disease and mend damaged blood vessels

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Lymphatic

Lymph (lymphatic fluid), lymphatic vessels, spleen, thymus, lymph nodes, tonsils (B, T cells)

Respiratory

Lungs, pharynx, larynx, trachea, bronchial tubes

Digestive

Mouth, pharynx, esophagus, stomach, small and large intestines, rectum, anus, accessory organs: salivary glands, liver, gall bladder, pancreas

Urinary

Kidneys, ureters, urinary bladder, urethra

Reproductive

Gonads (testes or ovaries), associated organs: epididymis, ductus deferens, penis, or uterine tubes, uterus, mammary glands, vagina

Return proteins and fluid to blood Carries lipids from gastrointestinal tract to blood Contains sites of maturation and proliferation of B and T cells Transfers oxygen from inhaled air to blood and carbon dioxide from blood to exhaled air Helps regulate acidity of body fluids, air flowing out of lungs through vocal cords produce sounds Physical and chemical breakdown of food Absorbs nutrients Eliminates solid wastes

Produces, stores, and eliminates urine Eliminates wastes and regulates volume and chemical composition of blood Helps regulate acid-base balance of body fluids Maintains body’s mineral balance Helps regulate red blood cell production Gonads produce gametes (sperm or oocytes) that unite to form a new organism and release hormones that regulate reproduction and other body processes Associated organs transport and store gametes Mammary glands produce milk in females

4. List and describe the 6 major processes of life (life processes). - Metabolism – sum of all chemical processes that occur in the body, includes breaking down or building up molecules - Responsiveness – body’s ability to detect and respond to changes in the environment - Movement – includes motion of entire body, individual organs, single cells, and tiny organelles in cells - Growth – increase in body size, may be due to an increase in size of existing cells, number of cells, or amount of material surrounding cells - Differentiation – process whereby unspecialized cells become specialized cells and have different structure and function than unspecialized cells - Reproduction – either the formation of new cells for growth, repair, or replacement, or the production of a new individual 5. Define homeostasis, and explain its importance to survival. - Homeostasis – condition of equilibrium in the body’s internal environment, which is produced by the ceaseless interplay of all the body’s regulatory processes ▪ Regulated by the nervous system and endocrine system, acting together or independently o The nervous system detects changes and sends nerve impulses to counteract a disruption o The endocrine system regulates homeostasis by secreting hormones 2

Nerve impulses cause rapid changes, whereas hormones usually work more slowly 6. Define a feedback system, and list the 3 component parts of a feedback loop. - Feedback system – cycle of events in which the status of a body condition (controlled condition) is continually monitored, evaluated, changed, remonitored, and re-evaluated/ reported back to a central control region ▪ Stimulus – any disruption that changes a controlled condition ▪ Receptor – monitors changes in a controlled condition and sends input as nerve impulses or chemical signals to a control centre ▪ Control centre – sets the range of values for the maintenance of a controlled condition, evaluates the input received from the receptors, and generates output commands when needed ▪ Effector (a body structure) – receives output from the control centre and produces a response or effect that changes the controlled condition o Nearly every organ or tissue in the body can behave as an effector 7. Define, explain, and give examples of positive and negative feedback loops. - Positive feedback system – tends to strengthen or reinforce a change in one of the body's controlled conditions ▪ Action of a positive feedback system continues until it is interrupted by some (external) mechanism ▪ If a response enhances the original stimulus, the system is a, for example, normal childbirth - Negative feedback system – reverses a change in a controlled condition ▪ Regulate conditions in the body that are held stable over long periods, such as BP, blood glucose level, and body temperature ▪ If a response reverses the original stimulus, the system is a, for example, the homeostasis of blood pressure (BP) - The functions of the receptors and control centers in a negative feedback system are the same as those of a positive feedback system 8. Define disease, symptom, and sign, and relate each to homeostatic imbalance. - Homeostatic imbalance – when one or more of the body’s controlled conditions lose their ability to contribute to homeostasis, can have moderate to severe imbalance ▪ Disorder – general terms for any abnormality of structure and/or function ▪ Disease – more specific term for an illness characterized by a recognizable set of signs and symptoms ▪ Symptom – subjective changes in body functions that are not apparent to an observer (ex. headache or nausea) ▪ Sign – objective changes that a clinician can observe and measure (ex. fever or rash) - Aging – normal process characterized by a progressive decline in the body's ability to restore homeostasis ▪ Produces observable changes in structure and function and increases vulnerability to stress and disease o

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9. Describe the anatomical position by using the descriptive and directional terms that refer to body structures, surfaces, and regions. - Anatomical position – body is upright, head level and the eyes facing forward, lower limbs are parallel, feet are flat on the floor and directed forward, upper limbs are at the sides with the palms turned forward - Prone position - body is lying face down - Supine position - body is lying face up

Body Region HEAD

Common Name Skull Base of skull Face Forehead Temple Eye Ear Cheek Nose Mouth Chin

Anatomical Name(s) CEPHALIC Cranial Occipital Facial Frontal Temporal Orbital or ocular Otic Buccal Nasal Oral Mental 4

NECK UPPER LIMB/ TRUNK

LOWER LIMB

Directional Term Superior (cephalic or cranial) Inferior (caudal) Anterior (ventral) Posterior (dorsal) Medial Lateral Intermediate

Chest Breastbone Armpit Shoulder blade Arm Breast Abdomen and Back Spinal column Front of elbow Back of elbow Navel Hip Forearm Pelvis and Loin Groin Pubis Between hips Buttock Region of anus and external genitals Hand and Back of hand Wrist Palm Thumb Fingers Thigh Anterior surface of knee Hollow behind knee Leg Calf Foot Ankle Heel Sole Top of foot Great toe Toes Definition Towards the head, or the upper part of a structure Away from the head, or the lower part of a structure Nearer to or at the front of the body Nearer to or at the back of the body Nearer to the midline Farther from the midline or midsagittal plane Between two structures

CERVICAL Thoracic Sternal Axillary Scapular Brachial Mammary Abdominal and Dorsal Vertebral Antecubital Olecranal or cubital Umbilical Coxal Antebrachial Pelvic and Lumbar Inguinal Pubic Sacral Gluteal Perineal Manual and Dorsum Carpal Palmar or volar Pollex Digital or phalangeal Femoral Patellar Popliteal Crural Sural Pedal Tarsal Calcaneal Plantar Dorsum Hallux Digital or phalangeal Example of Use The heart is superior to the liver The stomach is inferior to the lungs The sternum is posterior to the trachea The esophagus is posterior to the trachea The ulna is medial to the radius The lungs are lateral to the heart The transverse colon is intermediate to the ascending and descending colons

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Ipsilateral Contralateral Proximal

Distal

Superficial Deep

On the same side of the body as another structure On the opposite side of the body from another structure Nearer to the attachment of a limb to the trunk, nearer to the point of origin or the beginning Farther from the attachment of a limb to the trunk, farther from the point of origin or the beginning Toward or on the surface of the body Away from the surface of the body

The gallbladder and ascending colon are ipsilateral The ascending and descending colon are ipsilateral The humerus is proximal to the radius The phalanges are distal to the carpals The ribs are superficial to the lungs The ribs are deep to the skin of the chest and back

10. Identify the planes of reference used to depict the structural arrangement of the human body. - Planes – imaginary flat surfaces that are used to divide the body or organs into definite areas ▪ Sagittal – vertical plane that divides the body or an organ into right and left sides o Midsagittal (median) – divisions are equal o Parasagittal – divisions are unequal ▪ Frontal (coronal) – divides the body or an organ into anterior (front) and posterior (back) portions ▪ Transverse (cross-sectional or horizontal) – divides the body or an organ into superior (upper) and inferior (lower) portions ▪ Oblique – passes through the body or an organ at an angle between the transverse plane and a sagittal plane or between the transverse plane and the frontal plane - Principal planes – include the midsagittal (medial) and parasagittal, frontal (coronal), transverse (cross-sectional or horizontal), and oblique - Sections – flat surfaces that are created by cutting through body structures. These sections are named according to the plane on which the cut is made, for example, transverse, frontal, and midsagittal 6

Directional terms – used to precisely locate one part of the body relative to another, and to reduce the length of explanations about these relationships. Commonly used directional terms are dorsal, superior, medial, ventral, inferior, lateral, and proximal 11. Identify the body cavities and list the organs found within each. - Body cavities – spaces within the body that help to protect, separate, and support the internal organs ▪ Viscera – organs inside the thoracic and abdominopelvic cavities - Membrane – thin, pliable tissue that covers, lines, partitions, or connects structures ▪ Serous membrane – slippery double-membrane associated with body cavities that do not open directly to the exterior, covers viscera within the thoracic and abdominal cavities, lines walls of thorax and abdomen o Parietal layer of serous membrane – lines walls of cavities o Visceral layer of serous membrane – covers and adheres to viscera within cavities - Dorsal Body Cavity – located near the dorsal surface of the body; it has two subdivisions: ▪ Cranial cavity – formed by the cranial bones, which surround and protect the brain ▪ Vertebral (spinal) canal – formed by the bones of the vertebral column, which surround and protect the spinal cord and beginnings of spinal nerves - Ventral Body Cavity – subdivided by the diaphragm into an upper thoracic cavity and a lower abdominopelvic cavity ▪ Thoracic cavity – chest cavity, contains two pleural cavities and the mediastinum, which includes the pericardial cavity o Pleural cavity – enclose the lungs, the serous membrane of each pleural cavity is the pleura o Pericardial cavity – surrounds the heart, the serous membrane of the pericardial cavity is the pericardium o Mediastinum – broad, median partition between the lungs that extends from the sternum to the vertebral column and from first rib to diaphragm, contains everything in the thoracic cavity except the lungs (heart, thymus, esophagus, trachea, several large blood vessels) ▪ Abdominopelvic cavity – divided into a superior abdominal and an inferior pelvic cavity o Abdominal cavity – contains stomach, spleen, liver, gallbladder, small intestine, and most of large intestine, the serous membrane of the abdominal cavity is the peritoneum o Pelvic cavity – contains urinary bladder, portions of large intestine, and internal reproductive organs -

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12. List the regions of the body and the localized areas within each region. - 9 abdominopelvic regions: (used for anatomical studies) ▪ Right hypochondriac ▪ Epigastric ▪ Left hypochondriac ▪ Right lumbar ▪ Umbilical ▪ Left lumbar ▪ Right inguinal (iliac) ▪ Hypogastric ▪ Left inguinal - OR 4 abdominopelvic quadrants: (used for clinical studies) ▪ Right upper quadrant (RUQ) ▪ Left upper quadrant (LUQ) ▪ Right lower quadrant (RLQ) ▪ Left lower quadrant (LLQ) Medical terminology and conditions: - Local disease – affects one part, or a limited area of the body - Systemic disease – affects the entire body or several parts - Epidemiology – science that deals with why, when, and where diseases occur and how they are transmitted within a defined human population - Geriatrics – science that deals with the medical problems and care of elderly people - Pathology – science that deals with the nature, causes, and development of abnormal conditions and the structural and functional changes that diseases produce - Pharmacology – science that deals with the effects and uses of drugs in the treatment of disease Module 2: Introduction to Chemistry 1. Describe the structure of an atom and define the term isotope. - Chemistry – science of the structure and interactions of matter (anything that occupies space and has mass (amount of matter in any living organism or nonliving thing)) - Chemical element – quantity of matter composed of atoms of the same type, substances that cannot be broken down into a simpler form by ordinary chemical means, 118 different elements ▪ Chemical symbol – each element is designated a chemical symbol, one or two letters of the element’s name in English, Latin, or another language ▪ 26 different elements normally present in the body o 4 major elements (oxygen O, carbon C, hydrogen H, nitrogen N) constitutes about 96% of the body’s mass o 8 lesser elements (calcium Ca, phosphorus P, potassium K, sulfur S, sodium Na, chlorine Cl, magnesium Mg, iron Fe) contribute 3.6% of the body mass o 14 trace elements (iodine I) account for the remaining 0.4% of the body’s mass - Atoms – units of matter of all chemical elements, consist of a nucleus (contains positively charged protons and neutral/uncharged neutrons) and negatively charged electrons that move about the nucleus in different energy levels, smallest unit of matter that retain the properties and characteristics of the element ▪ Number of electrons in an atom equals the number of protons, negatively charged electrons and positively charged protons balance each other, atom is electrically neutral (total charge is zero) ▪ Atomic number – number of protons in the nucleus – each type of atom, or element has a different atomic number because they have different number of protons ▪ Mass number – total number of protons plus neutrons in an atom 8

Atom (atomic number, mass number): hydrogen (1,1), carbon 6,12), nitrogen (7,14), oxygen (8,16), sodium (11, 23), chlorine (17, 35), potassium (19, 39) ▪ Electron shells – specific groups of electrons are most likely to move about within certain regions around the nucleus, first shell 2 e-, second shell 8 e-, third shell 18 eo Higher electron shells can contain many more electrons, electron shells are filled with electrons in a specific order, beginning with the first shell Isotopes – different atoms of the same chemical elements and have the same number of protons but different numbers of neutrons ▪ Radioactive isotope – unstable and emits radiation (energy) o

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2. Define ion, molecule, compound, and free radical. - Ion – if an atom either gives up or gains electrons, the atom has a positive or negative charge due to its unequal number of protons and electrons - Molecule – when two or more atoms share electrons, can consist of 2 or more atoms of the same element OR 2 or more atoms of different elements - Compound – combination of two or more different atoms - Free radical – electrically charged atom or group of atoms with an unpaired electron in its outermost shell

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▪

Become stable by either giving up their unpaired electron or by taking on an electron from another molecule but end up breaking apart body molecules ▪ Superoxide – formed by the addition of an electron to an oxygen molecule - Antioxidants – substances that inactivate oxygen-derived free radicals, thought to slow the pace of damage caused by free radicals ▪ ex. selenium, zinc, beta-carotene, vitamin C, E, red, blue, purple fruits and vegetables 3. Describe the different types of chemical bonds, noting their relative strengths. - Chemical bonds – force of attraction that holds atoms of a molecule together ▪ Valence shell – chance that an atom will form a chemical bond with another atom depends on the number of electrons in its outermost shell o Chemically stable – atom with an outer shell holding either electrons ( octet rule), unlikely to form chemical bonds with other atoms - (1st) Covalent bonds – bond forms when atoms of molecules share electrons, most common chemical bond in body, can be nonpolar or polar, stronger bonds when they share more pairs of electrons ▪ Nonpolar covalent bonding – sharing of electrons between atoms is equal, bonds between two identical atoms are nonpolar covalent ▪ Polar covalent bonding – sharing of electrons between atoms is unequal, one atom attracts the shared electron more strongly than the other, polar covalent binding of hydrogen, fluorine, oxygen, or nitrogen allows hydrogen bonds to form o 𝜹- partial negative charge, atom that attracts electrons more strongly o 𝜹+ partial positive charge, atom that does not attract elect...