Notes FOR HLTH PSY EXAM 2 PDF

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EXAM TWO CHAPTER 5 Pg. 167 Imp. #1 · Heart disease is the primary cause of death in the United States and it is estimated that in 1995 $79 billion in direct medical costs were due to heart disease. · Most heart attacks are attributable to coronary artery disease caused by atherosclerosis, a condition in which fatty, fibrous plaques narrow the opening of the arteries, thus reducing the amount of blood that can get to the heart. · When the arteries become blocked, the heart muscle can be deprived of blood and hence oxygen. This is called a myocardial infarction (MI) or a heart attack, it can cause the heart muscle to become damaged or destroyed. Pg. 171 Imp. #2 · The best method for detecting breast cancer is doing a monthly breast self-exam (BSE) and immediately follow up on any abnormality. Despite the fact that many women do not regularly examine their breasts, most lumps are found by women themselves and not by doctors. · Physicians following guidelines from the American Cancer Society recommend mammograms (x-ray studies of the breasts) every one to two years for women 40-50 years old and annually after age 50, with a baseline mammogram at age 35. · CAUTION = Change in bladder or bowel habits; A sore that does not heal; Unusual bleeding or discharge; thickening or lump in the breast or elsewhere; Indigestion or difficulty in swallowing; Obvious change in wart or mole; Nagging cough or hoarseness. Pg. 174 Imp #3 -

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Primary

prevention activities are undertaken by apparently disease-free individuals to achieve maximum well-being and avoid disease. Secondary prevention becomes relevant once a person has developed a condition in which he or she is “at-risk” for further health damage. Secondary prevention involves taking preventative health measures in order to forestall potential negative outcomes. Tertiary prevention involves measures specifically designed to cure a disease or control its progress.

Pg. 179 Imp. #4

· Nutrition and Diet The average US diet contains about 40% fat, but experts recommend reducing it to somewhere between 20 and 30 percent, and particularly eliminating saturated fats. · Imp. #5 Obesity and Weight Control: Body weight and mass, appearance, percent body fat, and level of fitness are all factors that are important to think about when trying to determine whether someone is overweight or “obese.” Pg. 181 Imp. #6 ·

About

33% of the population qualifies as obese.

· Once you become obese, the condition tends to be self-perpetuating. His or her internal metabolic mechanisms readjust to maintain the higher weight. Excess girth makes it difficult to move around, and the overweight individual becomes more and more sedentary, further exacerbating the obesity. Pg. 182 Imp. #7 · Sedentary Lifestyle: The answer to weight loss seems to lie in lifestyle change, there are many barriers to such change. ·

Many

environmental factors that influence what and how we eat.

· In our society food is almost constantly available and we tend to be served (and eat) large portions. · There are many tantalizing and attractive foods that are energy-dense and high in saturated fats. ·

We

are bombarded with TV commercials that portray mouth watering delicacies.

·

Obtaining

calorie-rich foods is easy in modern times.

· Driving in automobiles and not expending any physical energy, we can zip to the supermarket or restaurant to indulge in our food cravings. · Further we are coaxed to spend hours sitting at our computers, video games, or in front of our TV sets burning a few calories. ·

All

of these factors promote obesity and make a healthy lifestyle changes difficult to achieve.

Pg. 184 Imp. #8 & #9

· Exercise – Recent evidence indicates that more moderate and less structured physical activity is nearly as effective in promoting health (including cardiovascular fitness) as other, more regimented programs. (15 minutes a day). · The value of regular exercise is acknowledged by many Americans (over 70% in some surveys). But only about 40% actually engage in any regular physical exercise. And only about 50% of those who have begun an exercise program are still exercising size months later. Pg. 186 Imp. #10 · Sleep – Studies show a direct correlation between the quality of an individual’s mental performance and getting enough sleep. · People who get adequate sleep are more hopeful, their senses are more acute, and their minds are more receptive to ideas and to people. They have a greater sense of well-being than those who are sleep deprived. In terms of longevity, sleep is more important than you think. Getting enough sleep promotes more effective immune functioning. · People who get inadequate sleep – Sleeping too little promotes unpleasant mood, hopelessness, and even depression, as well as mental fogginess and limited creativity. Sleep debt is implicated as a cause of stomach upset and increased sensitivity to pain. In studies with rats, extreme sleep deprivation caused a complete shutting down of the immune system. Pg. 187 Sleep Hygiene Techniques Imp. #11 ·

Avoid

caffeine within 8 hours of bedtime

· Set a regular sleep time that gives you the sleep you need. Stick to the schedule seven days a week. · Control external stimuli before sleep time. Avoid things that could be exciting, upsetting, or cause anxiety or anger. · D  o something enjoyable and relaxing but not too exciting before going to sleep (read something pleasant). ·

Take

advantage of a paradoxical intervention that works. Try not  to fall asleep.

Pg. 189 Smoking - Aversion Therapy to overcome addiction Imp. #12 · Mid-1970’s found that aversion therapy was somewhat successful to help people quit smoking. The smoker was forced to take a puff every six seconds until satisfied and to continue until smoking became aversive. It was believed that (in an operant conditioning model) the negative feelings that followed taking a puff of the cigarette would reduce the probability of continued smoking.

Pg. 190 relapse Imp. #13 & #14 · Relapse. is particularly common in addictions. relapse is defined as a recurrence of symptoms of a condition after a period of improvement. In the case of a smoker, relapse refers to returning to being a smoker after a period of having quit. ·

Quitting

smoking brings on classic withdrawal symptoms

o H  eadache o I rritability o S  leeplessness that may last for days or weeks o W  eight gain because nicotine speeds up metabolism and people often deal with the difficulties of smoking cessation by consuming more calories. Pg. 191 Alcoholic Imp. #15 · An alcoholic is someone who is physically and psychologically addicted to alcohol and experiences health and social problems from its consumption. · Alcoholics are physically addicted to alcohol, have a high tolerance for it, and have little ability to control their intake. They experience severe physical symptoms of withdrawal when they attempt to stop drinking.

CHAPTER 6 Pg. 211 Imp. #1 -

We get a lot of our health information from the media. Studies have shown that this is a major source of information for a lot of people. The media sends inadvertent health messages that can unintentionally change people's behavior. One important source of health info is from your physician because they can give you individual information on an informed basis. Friends and family can be sources of information about health. We tend to synthesis information given to us by all our friends and family along with more informed locations like your doctors

Pg. 212 Imp. #2 - Health belief model= two variables determine whether a person will perform certain health behaviors

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The degree to which the disease (negative outcome) is perceived by one person as threatening The degree to which the health behavior is believed to be effective in reducing the risk of negative health outcomes

Pg. 214 Imp. #3 - The current status of one’s own health can affect the value placed on health in general - When people are healthy and feeling well, they tend to place a lower value on health than they do when they are facing serious illness Pg. 216 Imp. #4 - Threatening or fear-arousing messages alone tend to be unsuccessful because they increase an individual's anxiety to such a level that he or she may deny that anything is wrong and instead simply “tune out” the message - Threatening health messages can work to change health behavior in some situations however in order to do so the message must enhance the individual’s feeling that something can be done to change the potential outcome and that she or he is not entirely powerless - Threatening or fear-arousing warnings can produce changes only when the warning sign actually convinces people first that their health is in danger and second that they can reduce this danger by taking the recommended steps. Pg. 218 Imp. #5 - Persuasiveness of a message is determined partly by the characteristics of the communicator. Simply put, a message is more persuasive when it comes from a communicator who is liked than from one who is not. The most effective persuader is one who is enthusiastic, interested, dynamic, and confident. - The effective persuader believes the messages he or she transmits and is perceived to be trustworthy, dependable, predictable, honest, and have motives that are in the receiver’s best interest. Pg. 219 Imp. #6 - Self-efficacy= the belief that you have the ability to perform the behavior that will help you, we must believe that we have the ability to perform the behavior (believe u can change) Pg. 221 Imp. #7 Transtheoretical model- self-regulative theory with 6 stages of change First stage is precontemplation and it occurs when the person is not even thinking about changing his or her behavior. People depend on input from others because they do not see their health behavior problem - Second Stage is contemplation, person recognizes that a problem exists and starts to think about making a change (strategies include gathering info and emotional arousal)

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The third stage is preparation, a person is almost ready to instigate change and spends time thinking about how to implement the new behavior. Ideally focusing on the expected positive outcomes (someone at this stage need to create a very specific plan of action and make that plan public so that others can help maintain motivation) Fourth stage is action, person actually begins the actual behavior change Fifth stage is maintenance, person tries to avoid temptations to revert back to old habits and learns to negotiate various pitfalls that might sabotage the new behavior Sixth stage is termination where the behavior has been completely integrated into the person’s lifestyle and there are no longer dangers of slip-ups

Pg. 222 Imp. #8 - Theory of reasoned action= examine the influence of various members of your social group and analyze the impact of all of these influences to see the net influence on you and how you react to it - (scheme for systematically analyzing the influence of other people on an individual's commitment to a particular behavior) Pg. 228 Imp. #9 - Shaping= (graduated treatment implementation) application of reinforcement for successive approximations of the desired behaviors. Initially rewarding anything that vaguely resembles the target action, such as putting on running shoes and walking lazily around inside. - Self Regulation (self imposed operant conditioning) - Self-monitoring/observation: deliberately and carefully attending to the precise details of one’s own behavior. self-evaluation= comparing the behaviors assessed through self monitoring compared against a specific criterion or ideal.. self-reinforcement= the rewards or reinforcers that are used when the behavior is close to the desired behavior Pg. 231 Imp. #10 - It is better for an individual to tackle one behavior at a time and then link the successful health behaviors together. Taking on too many health resolutions at one time or making more than one change in daily lifestyle can be overwhelming and can make one so frustrated that it is tempting to “just forget it” Pg. 233 Imp. #11 - The biggest obstacle to maintaining a new behavior is, high-risk situations that the individual does not have coping skills for or when their coping skills aren't well enough developed

CHAPTER 7 P. 243 What is Illness Imp. #1 · Illness is a subjective phenomenon. It depends upon an individual’s evaluation of his or her own internal state and ability to function. The definition leaves room for the effects of both physical and emotional factors. · Because people usually wait until they feel  sick to go to the doctor, the subjective definition of a person’s bodily state is what typically brings him or her to seek help from a health professional. Illness is the feeling of being sick. · Disease is a biological definition of something that is physically wrong with the body. Illness is a subjective feeling that you’re having. P. 244 Health Imp. #2 · The W.H.O. adopted a comprehensive view of health back in 1946, stating that “Health is the state of complete physical, mental, and social well-being, and is not merely the absence of disease.” P. 246 Functional Somatic Syndrome Imp. #3 · The term “functional somatic syndrome” refers to a group of related syndromes that are characterized by functional disability and self-reported symptoms rather than clearly demonstrable organic problems. These include things like irritable bowel syndrome, chronic fatigue syndrome, multiple chemical sensitivity, and repetitive stress injuries. P. 247 Paradox of doing better but feeling worse Imp.  #4 · Chronic illnesses such as diabetes, rheumatoid arthritis, and heart disease cannot be cured outright but they can be controlled. Thus, one explanation for the paradox of “doing better but feeling worse” is that today people live long enough to experience chronic illness that leaves them with various nagging symptoms, impairments, and disabilities that medical professionals can help control but cannot cure. P. 249 Biomedical Model Imp. #5 · The biomedical model assumes that illness can be fully  accounted for by a patient’s deviations from the norm on measurable biological variables. · The model holds that even the most complex illness phenomena can be reduced to certain measurable physical abnormalities. (It is 100% physical) P250 biopsychosocial model Imp.  #6

· The biopsychosocial model requires that psychological and social factors must be included along with the biological  in any attempts to understand a person’s response (positive or negative) to physical symptoms and the experience of illness. · Such an approach incorporates various important psychological phenomena along with biological parameters. These include: o 1. The meaning a person attaches to his or her condition (whether it is something that will prevent the achievement of goals or something to be overcome). o 2. What the individual consciously or unconsciously wants (for example, to fail or to succeed; to be taken care of or to maintain independence). o 3. The individuals own response style (such as whether he or she enhances or tries to minimize personal disabilities and discomforts). The biopsychosocial model also incorporates the individual’s social expectations about illness, particularly patterns learned from family and culture, for appropriate ways to respond to symptoms. The model also takes into account the person’s psychological state, such as the extent to which she or he is anxious or depressed. The model also takes into account the present social context of the illness (that is how the illness affects the individual’s relationships with other people). P. 253 Factors that influence reactions to physical symptoms Imp.  #7 · Sixth, our cultural background tends to affect our responses to symptoms. In a New York City hospital one classic research study examined the reactions of patients from varied ethnic backgrounds. ·

People

of Jewish and Italian descent responded to pain in a very emotional fashion.

· People of “old American” ancestry were stoic and talked objectively about pain as if it were an entity separate from themselves. · The Irish denied feelings of pain even when they presented to the clinic with objective symptoms. · Cultural norms are important in helping to determine many aspects of illness ranging from which symptoms are important and how to respond to them to determining the most appropriate ways of dealing with those that are sick.

P. 255 – Table 7.1 The 9 Factors that Influence Reactions to Physical Symptoms ** Good summary. P. 255 Seeking Medical Help for Symptoms Imp.  #8 · Research in the general population shows that at any given time, 75-90% of people experience symptoms that could  be considered clinically relevant. However, only about 20-30% will seek medical help. P. 258 The Lay Referral Network Imp. #9 · The lay referral network consists of friends and family members who help an individual to attach meaning to his or her symptoms. · These people typically offer advice about whether the person should seek care from a physician, treat the condition with some home remedy, or ignore it and wait for it to go away. (advice about whether to seek treatment or not). P. 260 Failure to Get Help for Heart Attack Imp. #10 · Although it is usually possible to receive the necessary help to prevent death from a heart attack, many people fail to get it. Why? Research suggests that heart attack victims fail to receive timely medical assistance for two reasons: ·

1.

They attribute their symptoms incorrectly to conditions other than a heart attack

·

2.

They delay unnecessarily even after they have decided to seek medical care.

· Many patients initially attribute heart attack symptoms to conditions such as indigestion, ulcers, gallbladder disease, or the flu. P. 260 Three Parts of Delay in Seeking Medical Care Imp. 11 · Appraisal time – the time it takes the patient to appraise his or her symptoms as illness and t decide that the sensations mean that something important is wrong. · Illness delay – the time from the patient’s decision that he or she is ill to the decision to seek care; this delay may be caused by the belief that the patient’s condition cannot be ameliorated with medical intervention. · Utilization delay – is the time from the decision to seek care to the actual obtaining of medical services. The time it takes to choose care that is worth the costs, finding a doctor, and getting the money to pay for the visit, what is copay, how do I get there

· Total Delay – is the total length of time it takes an individual to move from recognition of symptoms to the arrival at the clinic or emergency room. P. 261 Delay seeking Melanoma Care Imp. #12 · As many at 68% of individuals who note signs of melanoma do not go to see a doctor right away. ·

Many

think the symptoms are not serious and they will go away on their own.

· One study showed that the average delay between noticing a melanoma and getting appropriate help was over 11 months, with almost 10 of these being due to the patients’ own delay in seeking help. P. 263 The Sick Role Secondary Gains Imp. #13 ·

Occupying

the sick role can have its advantages.

· These privileges are referred to as secondary gains and are positive outcomes that balance some of the more negative aspects of being ill. · These can include being exempt from work and caring for others, from caring from him or herself. Pain and illness bring increased atten...