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Leadership and Management – lecture slidesGeneral information Leadership and Management = combination of Organizational Behavior (OB) & Human Resource Management (HRM).  – OB = is about understanding how people and groups in organizations behave.  – HRM = managers’ activities to attract and ke...

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Leadership and Management – lecture slides General information Leadership and Management = combination of Organizational Behavior (OB) & Human Resource Management (HRM).  – OB = is about understanding how people and groups in organizations behave.  – HRM = managers’ activities to attract and keep employees and ensure that they perform at a high level and in line with organizational goals. => Main focus: people in organizations.

Topic

Leadership

Motivation

Creativity & Innovation

Stress & Occupational Health

Decision Making & Work in the Digital Age

Proactive Behavior

Seminars and lectures = exam material 10 articles (not overview articles) -

Method (how did they decide to test this?) Strength and weakness of the methods (already in the articles) Learn authors (somethings you do not get the title, because it will help you)

1. Lecture 1 - Leadership Leadership Definitions:  “A process of social influence whereby a leader steers members of a group towards a goal” (Bryman, 1992).  “A process of social influence in which one person is able to enlist the aid and support of others in the accomplishment of a task” (Chemers, 2000). Leaders are made, not born 1.1 Trends in leadership theory and research

Ethical & servant wordt niet besproken in de course 1.1.1. Trait theories of leadership (up to late 40s) leader?

Who is the

 Trait theories suggest that leaders are born (i.e., selection is important). They consider how personality, social, physical and/or intellectual traits may differentiate leaders from non-leaders. Personality has not been found to be very predictive, but in terms of the big five personality framework:  Extraversion is found to be the most important factor of the big 5 – although it’s more predictive of leader emergence than leader effectiveness – i.e., sociable/assertive people are more likely to assert themselves in group situations.  Conscientiousness and openness to experience also show strong and consistent relationships to leadership.  How are physical traits associated with leadership? For example: Height is related to leadership (does not mean it is a good leader, he is more likely to be a leader)  Taller people are more likely to be leaders.  And to earn higher salaries. Also: Overweight executives tend to get lower leadership ratings. *Possible evolutionary explanation Note only that:  While traits can predict leadership, they are better at predicting leader emergence than effectiveness  ‘ze voorspelen of ze een leider worden, niet de effectiviteit ‘



Also, while traits help us to predict leadership, they don’t help us to explain leadership. There is always an indirect effect between a trait and the outcome of leadership.

The next set of theories suggest that leaders are made (i.e., training is important). 1.1.2. Styles and behaviours (late 40s – 60s) do?

What does a leader

Behaviour is directly observable. Behaviour can more easily be changed. Direct relationship with leadership effectiveness. Being able to distinguish (in)effective leadership behaviour will help us to design leadership talent management systems: hire, develop, and promote the skills necessary for leadership success. => Key assumption: there are universally effective leadership behaviours.    

How did they study leadership behaviour?  Approach to research: Identify differences in behaviour between effective versus ineffective leaders. 

Methods: − Observe leaders − Interview/survey leaders about how they lead. − Interview/survey followers about their leaders’ behaviour. − Diary studies with leaders (longitudinal perspective). − Newer techniques: trackers (e.g., stress-level), apps.

STUDY 1 - Ohio State university research 



Initiating structure: How much a leader emphasizes meeting work goals and accomplishing tasks. Leaders high in initiating structure engage in many different taskrelated behaviors e.g., assigning deadlines, establishing performance standards and monitoring performance levels. Consideration: How friendly and supportive a leader is towards followers. Leaders high in consideration engage in many different behaviors that show supportiveness and concern, such as speaking up for subordinates’ interests, caring about their personal situations and showing appreciation for their work.

STUDY 2 – University of Michigan Research  tried to identify leader behaviors that contributed to effective group performance. They identified four categories of leadership behaviors, namely: 1) Goal emphasis

2) Work facilitation 3) Leader support 4) Interaction facilitation. – Goal emphasis and work facilitation were job-centered dimensions, thus similar to the OSU dimension of initiating structure. – Leader support and interaction facilitation were employee-centered dimensions, thus similar to the OSU dimension of consideration. CONCLUSION (both studies)  UoM researchers (study 2) considered job-centered and employee- centered leadership to be at opposite ends of a single continuum of leadership behavior. ▪ Thus, UoM researchers considered which type of leadership behavior was more effective in helping teams to achieve their goals, job or employee-centered leadership.

 Ohio state (study 1) researchers believed that consideration and initiating structure dimensions were independent continuums. ▪ Thus, they asked whether leaders that scored high on both dimensions were more effective than those that scored high on only one.

So.. ▪ The most effective leadership style also appears to depend on the criteria used to judge effectiveness. – Consideration is especially important for follower satisfaction, motivation and leader effectiveness. – Initiating structure is esp. important for group/organizational performance. ▪ In addition, it may be expected that the effectiveness of leader styles may vary depending on the context i.e., the type of organization, national culture etc. ▪ This suggests that a contingency approach may be needed...

1.1.3. Contingency (late 60s – 80s)

It all depends...

Oftewel, leiderschap is gebaseerd op verschillende factoren Maybe leadership effectiveness depends on situational factors (i.e., under condition ‘a’, style ‘x’ would be appropriate, under condition ‘b’, style ‘y’ would be preferable).

These approaches suggest that the most effective way for a leader to behave depends on: – Leader: Traits, experience, skills... – Follower: Capabilities, motivation... – Situation: Task, structure, environment... THEORY 1 – Path goal Theory (House & Dresseler) Effective leaders ensure valued rewards (goals) and help followers - with information, support, and other resources (path) - to attain these goals. Four types of leaders were identified: – Directive: Focus on the work to be done. – Supportive: Focus on the well-being of the worker. – Participative: Consult with employees in decision-making. – Achievement-oriented: Set challenging goals. Expect followers to perform at their highest level. Two classes of contingency variables were identified: – Situational/environmental factors: Are outside of employee control. – Follower/subordinate factors: Are internal to the employee.  House argues that the effectiveness of different leadership styles depends on the nature of the contingency (subordinate and environmental) factors.  Some predictions based on path-goal theory include: – Directive leadership is more strongly related to follower satisfaction when tasks are ambiguous or stressful than when they are well laid out. – Supportive leadership results in high employee performance and satisfaction when followers perform structured tasks.

– Directive leadership is more effective when followers have an external vs an internal locus of control. – Directive leadership is more effective for insecure and less capable followers than for secure and more capable followers. Strength & weakness of the theory  The theory is very difficult to test; so far there is some support for the theory. + Strengths: application of motivation (expectancy) theory + highlights the importance of contingency factors/situational moderators. So: not only train leaders in behaviors but also in assessing the situation!  Weakness: Limited scope→leadership effectiveness is not only determined by the ability to increase followers’ motivation. Highlights the mismatch between researchers and practitioners – many practitioners see the theory as too complex to apply. THEORY 2 – Contingency Model (Fiedler) Fiedler argued that a key factor in leadership success is the individual’s basic leadership style.  Premise: leaders are not that flexible in terms of their behavior. – Specifically, Fiedler argued that leadership style is fixed (i.e., you are always either task or relationship-oriented). Thus, we can either craft the situation to our tendencies or choose the right leader for a specific situation.  He thus created the LPC (least preferred co-worker scale) which purports to measure whether a person is task or relationship-oriented. Instructions LPC (least preferred co-worker scale) Think about a person with whom you can work least well. He or she may be someone you work with now or someone you knew in the past. He or she does not have to be the person you like least well but should be the person with whom you have had the most difficulty in getting a job done. Describe this person by circling one of the numbers between each pair of adjectives.

Fiedler’s least preferred co-worker leader’s motivation hierarchy: Low LPC – Task-oriented. – Very effective at completing tasks. – Quick to organize groups to get tasks and projects done. – Relationship-building is not a priority. Low LPC-leaders are primarily motivated by the task. If tasks are

scale (LPC) sought to determine a High LPC -Relationship-oriented. -Focus on personal connections, good at avoiding and managing conflicts. -Task accomplishment is secondary. Conversely, high LPC-leaders are primarily motivated by relationships.

being accomplished in an acceptable manner, they will move to their secondary motivation – forming/ maintaining relationships with followers.

Once these are established, they will move on to focus on task accomplishment.

The LPC scale could predict leader effectiveness reliably if 3 situational factors were considered: – Leader-member relationships: The degree of confidence, trust, and respect that members have in their leader – Task structure: The degree to which the job assignments are structured (clear and detailed - vague and general) – Position power: The degree of influence a leader has over power variables, such as hiring, firing, discipline, promotions, salary The theory suggests that the more ‘control’ a leader has, the more favorable the situation (i.e., the higher the situational favorability).

Strength & weakness of the theory What are the positives? – Considerable evidence supports the model, especially if the original eight situations are grouped into three. ▪ What are the criticisms? – The logic behind the LPC scale is not well understood. – No flexibility in leaders, is this true? (research suggests LPC scores are not stable). – Contingency variables are complex and hard to determine. So… leadership effectiveness is contingent upon: – Motivation hierarchy leader. – Situation favorability (LM-relations, task structure, and position power). 1.1.4. Vision & inspiration >1990) Charismatic leadership

Where do we want to go?

House’s Charismatic leadership theory: Followers make attributions of heroic or extraordinary leadership abilities when they observe certain behaviors. Charismatic leaders: – Have a vision. – Are willing to take personal risks to achieve that vision. – Are sensitive to followers’ needs. – Exhibit behaviors that are out of the ordinary. Charismatic leaders are likely to be extraverted, self-confident and achievementoriented. How to become more charismatic:  Use your passion as a catalyst to stir enthusiasm  Speak in an animated voice  Reinforce your message with eye contact and facial expressions  Gesture for emphasis  Tap into the emotions of followers  Create an inspirational bond with them  Enthusiasm is contagious! How do charismatic leaders influence followers? A four-step process: 1. Leader articulates an attractive vision. o Must be inspirational, value-centered, realizable, and given with superior imagery and articulation. 2. Leader communicates high performance expectations and confidence in a follower’s ability. 3. Leader conveys a new set of values by setting an example. 4. Leader engages in emotion-inducing and often unconventional behavior to demonstrate convictions about the vision. Does charisma work well in all situations? – Charisma works best when: è There is a lot of stress and uncertainty in the environment. è The leader is at the upper level of the organization. è Followers have low self-esteem and self-worth. Examples ▪ Leaders like Martin Luther King were very successful in inspiring others with their vision. ▪ However, there can be a ‘Dark Side of Charisma’ →For example, Hitler was regarded by many as extremely charismatic. Transformational leadership There are 4 primary transformational leadership behaviors: 1. Individualized consideration: 2. Gives personal attention, treats employees individually, coaches, advises. 2. Intellectual stimulation: – Promotes intelligence, rationality, and problem solving.

3. Inspirational motivation: – Communicates high expectations, uses symbols to focus efforts, expresses important issues simply. 4. Idealized influence: – Provides vision and sense of mission, instills pride, gains respect and trust. …. Study? Basis for Action: – Transformational leadership works by encouraging followers to be more innovative and creative and by providing ambitious goals. – Leaders are expected to be most effective when they regularly use each of the four transformational behaviors. Strength & weakness of the theory Empirical support – A review of 87 studies found that transformational leadership was related to the motivation and satisfaction of followers and to the higher performance/perceived effectiveness of leaders.  veel studies die het onderbouwen – Transformational leadership is correlated with lower turnover rates, higher productivity, and lower employee stress.  less likely to leave the company bc of TL However: – A paper by van Knippenberg and Sitkin (2013) criticized transformationalcharismatic leadership, claiming that the concept is not well-defined, and that it is poorly operationalized and measured. This paper suggests that research should focus on more clearly defined and empirically distinct aspects of leadership.  paper published that is not good, bc not well-defined, poorly operationalized and measured Situational leadership theory – paul hersey & ken Blanchard  more flexible

Telling – you are telling

Selling – telling but bit what the followers want Participanten – make decisions together Deligating – followers decide 1- Look what kind of situation it is 2- Choose a style Not a lot of empirical support, but used a lot

1.1.5. Meaning, values

How do we pursuit our purpose

Meaning-based leadership è The core role of leadership in organizations is mobilizing and motivating people for the pursuit of the organization’s purpose.  je moet je focussen op organization purpose è The purpose of an organization is its most fundamental objective, which captures to what ends the organization exists and why this is meaningful.  maak werknemers gemotiveerd, om deze purpose te steunen Purpose is niet altijd duidelijk, dus leiders moeten dit duidelijk uitstralen Voorbeelden purposen  Whole Foods Market: Our purpose is to nourish people and the planet  Southwest Airlines: To connect People to what's important in their lives through friendly, reliable, and low-cost air travel  UNICEF: To work with others to overcome the obstacles that poverty, violence, disease and discrimination place in a child's path. SUMMARIZED è Traits and other personal characteristics may determine in part whether or not a person is more likely to become a leader than others è Behavioral theories of leadership (e.g., Ohio & Michigan) both identified 2 leadership styles: task vs people-oriented. è Mixed findings indicated contingency effects may be at play. o Contingency theories show us that the effectiveness of leadership behavior depends on characteristics of the leader, the follower, and the situation. è Transformational leadership is also found to be positively associated with follower satisfaction and motivation, although it has been criticized to be an overly broad concept. è Recently, more attention for the purpose of an organization

1.2 Sample questions According to the Ohio State studies, the extent to which a leader’s behavior is directed towards getting the job done is called ____. A) Consideration B) Maximization C) Position power D) Initiating structure Three situational criteria identified in Fiedlers Contingency model are ____.

A) Job requirements, position power, and leadership ability B) Charisma, influence, and leader-member relations C) Leader-member relations, task structure, and position power D) Task structure, leadership ability, and group conflict (learn the row) Which of the following theories focuses on how leaders influence their followers by articulating an attractive vission A) Situational Leadership Theory B) Meaning-based leadership C) Charismatic Leadership Theory The delegating leadership style has: A) High task/low relationship behaviour B) Low task/ low relationship behaviour C) High task/high relationship behaviour D) Low task/high relationship behaviour Your team is working well together and are satisfied with their task, so you decide to adopt a _____ leadership style. However, due to a reorganization, the team has to work unfamiliar software which they find complex and irritating. Therefore, you adjust your leadership style to _____. A) Participating, telling B) Delegating, participating C) Delegating, selling D) Selling, telling Delegating -> when the team is satisfied, you have delegating style. Selling -> complex thing, so then you need to selling (making it less irritating) Paula has good relationships with her employees, their task is unstructured, she is powerful. Tom has bad relationships with his employees, their task is structured, he is not that powerfull Peter has good relations with his employees, their task is structured, he is not that powerfull Anna has bad relations with her employees, their task structured, she is powerfull - Which rank order shows the most to least favorable situation according to Fiedler’s Continguency Model? A) Paula, Anna, Tom & Peter B) Paula, Peter, Anna & Tom C) Peter, Anna, Paul & Tom D) Peter, Paula, Anna & Tom This is an example of a exam question  Powerfull = high positioning power 1. What was the most important factor  are the relationship good? 2. Is the task structure low or not? 3. Is the power high or low Which of the following most likely represents a situation where charismatic leadership is not needed? A) A business is facing the introduction of a radically new product B) A business is in its infancy C) A business is succeeding due to several years of strong market leadership

D) A business is in the throes of a hostile takeover When a business is going good, charismatic leadership is less likely to use

Articles week 1 Judge, T. A., Piccolo, R. F., & Ilies, R. (2004). The forgotten ones? The validity of consideration and initiating structure in leadership research. Main focus of the research Hypotheses Methods Results Implementations

Vroom, V. H., & Jago, A. G. (2007). The role of the situation in leadership. Definitions Main focus of the research Hypotheses Methods Results Implementations

2.

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