Open Stax Psychology 2e LN02 PDF

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OpenStax Psychology Chapter 2 Psychological Research Study Guide 2.1 Why is Research Important? a. Research is a mandatory process in validating claims. Without research, we would only have intuition and groundless assumptions. Through research we are able to prove certain ideas through study and testing. Because Psychology is a science, research is required to not only further investigate something but provide verification and support of the findings. i. Psychological research utilizes tools within the scientific method to process observations and claims made. The two processes work interchangeably. ii. In the process of inductive reasoning, new ideas are generated from empirical observations. Through this, general ideas are derived from observations made. iii. Deductive reasoning uses general ideas to create predictions to claims by testing real-world observations. iv. Through these processes, certain claims derive from the ideas generated. 1. A theory is a less refined set of ideas, more of a proposed explanation. 2. A hypothesis is a more concrete claim, typically an if-then statement. This concrete quality in a hypothesis is what separates it from general ideas gathering.

Questions: 1. What is the difference between inductive and deductive reasoning? 2. The scientific method is often described as self-correcting and cyclical. Briefly describe your understanding of the scientific method with regard to these concepts. 2. In this section, conjoined twins, Krista and Tatiana, were described as being potential participants in a case study. In what other circumstances would you think that this particular research approach would be especially helpful and why? 4. Distinguish between a theory and a hypothesis. 5. Why do we treat some theories as "near facts" and others as less concrete and accepted?

2.2 Approaches to Research Because the field of Psychology includes such a variety of research a variety of techniques are utilized to approach these areas of study. 1. Clinical studies or case studies focus on one individual. The studied individual is typically in a extreme or unique psychological circumstance that differentiates them for the general public. Because these cases are so distinct, it is difficult to rely on previous findings in that such cases require exclusive attention. 2. Naturalistic behavior is generally hidden under scrutiny or observation. To study the most accurate and genuine behaviors, naturalistic observation proven most effective. Through naturalistic observations, any feeling of performance or anxiety of the studied individuals is eliminated. Establishment of clear criteria to observe should help eliminate observer bias. 3. Surveys can be used to gather a large amount of data from a sample from a population. 4. Some more expansive subjects of research require a stretched period of time to measure changes or effects. 5. Through longitudinal research, gradual differences can be studied through a more prolonged time of study. 6. E. Cross-sectional research creates cohorts of subjects over the same expanse of time, allowing sectioned observations rather than continual.

Questions: 1. Aside from biomedical research, what other areas of research could greatly benefit by both longitudinal and archival research? 2. What are some pros and cons of survey usage? 3. List some limitations of naturalistic behavior?

2.3 Analyzing Findings Varied techniques are not limited only to data collection. Analysis of collected findings can be approached differently as well. A. Findings can be drawn from correlations found in the collected data. When two variables move in the same direction, a positive correlation is apparent. When two variables move in different

B.

C. D. E. F. G.

directions, a negative correlation is found. It is important to keep in mind that any correlations found do not necessarily prove causation. A hypothesis regarding cause and effect can be tested through experimentation. a. An experiment should include an experimental group receiving experimental manipulation and a control group that is not manipulated. To eliminate any ambiguity or misinterpretation, operational definitions or clear descriptions should be established. Because experimenter biases can be apparent, techniques such as single blind and double-blind can help eliminate any biases in researchers. When findings are collected they are sorted between the independent variable, the manipulated findings, and the dependent variable, the measured effect of the independent variable. Although experiments may require specific demographics, a random sample is used to ensure that the sample pool was selected randomly without any biased dispositions. A statistical analysis is used to study any meaningful differences between the groups within the study.

Questions: 1. Who makes up the control group of an experiment, and how do they differ from the experimental group? 2. Distinguish between positive and negative correlation. 3. How do single blind and double blind studies help eliminate the impact of bias? 4. What are demographics? 5. Recently a study was published in the journal, Nutrition and Cancer, which established a negative correlation between coffee consumption and breast cancer. Specifically, it was found that women consuming more than 5 cups of coffee a day were less likely to develop breast cancer than women who never consumed coffee (Lowcock, Cotterchio, Anderson, Boucher, & ElSohemy, 2013). Imagine you see a newspaper story about this research that says, “Coffee Protects Against Cancer.” Why is this headline misleading and why would a more accurate headline draw less interest?

2.4 Ethics Because psychological research is behavior based, a set of ethics and conduct is in order to ensure the wellbeing of participants. These apply to all human and animal research subjects. A. Research Involving Human Components: Any experiment involving the participation of human subjects is strictly governed. a. Guidelines ensure that experiment does not cause harm. i. Any risks must be disclosed and participants must acknowledge them in an informed consent document. ii. Informed consent also ensures that participation is voluntary, data is confidential, and participants can leave at any time. b. Institutional review boards (IRB) required for any research institution that receives federal support for research involving human participants. c. Tuskegee study targeted Black men and tested them for syphilis (nearly 400 tested positive). Since the purpose was to study untreated syphilis, the administrators withheld both treatment and information about their disease, which led them to infect others and suffer effects of the disease. i. Started in 1932 by US Public Health Service, lasted 40 years. ii. By 1947, penicillin was a treatment, but was not provided to those who had tested positive. iii. When the study was revealed in 1972 it led to significant changes in US law, such as the guidelines discussed earlier.

Questions: 1. Describe the Tuskeegee study and its impacts on research laws and guidelines. 2. What is an IRB and who makes it up? 3. What guidelines are in place regarding animal studies? 4. What is informed consent? 5. Peer review is an important part of publishing research findings in many scientific disciplines. This process is normally conducted anonymously; in other words, the author of the article being reviewed does not know who is reviewing the article, and the reviewers are unaware of the author’s identity. Why would this be an important part of this process?...