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OpenStax Psychology Chapter 6 Learning Study Guide

6.1 What is Learning?

We all possess a set of abilities of a sort; this can range from solving complex mathematical formulae to simply blinking. The question is, how did we come to acquire said skills? Mathematics for some of us can be difficult to comprehend initially but blinking, for the most of us, seems almost effortlessly done without thought. The difference between the two is acquisition. Mathematics is generally a skill from learning. Learning: A change in knowledge or behavior as a result of experience. Perhaps you took a class or read instructions in a book, the point is, you gained experience through something to acquire this skill.  

Learning is not entirely based on specific experiences however. We have the tendency to associate things learned with stimuli. This is an example of associative learning, or when an organism establishes connections with between stimuli and events.

Reflex: a motor or neutral reaction to a present stimulus. ●

Example: In the instance a moth flies toward your eye, you generally wouldn’t rely on past experiences of objects darting at your eyes rather; you would blink instinctually as a result.

Questions 1. 2. 3. 4.

Compare and contrast reflexes with instincts How does the chapter define “learning”? How does associative learning occur? What are the three types of learning that this chapter discusses and under what tradition in psychology are they studied?

6.2 Classical Conditioning Russian scientist Ivan Pavlov further explored these two forms of skill acquisition. Classical conditioning: events or consequences can be anticipated through associated stimuli. Pavlov Study: ● ●

He taught dogs to associate the ringing of a bell to food. Consequently the dogs would salivate at the presence of food based on their associating the bell with food, the dogs were then classically conditioned to salivate at just the sound of chiming.

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In this situation, the food was the unconditioned stimulus, or stimulus provoking reflexive responses. The salivation demonstrated an unconditioned response, the natural reaction. The bell in this case was the neutral stimulus, typically unassociated with food; the bell chiming was utilized as a conditioning tool. In associating chiming with food, the bell became a conditioned stimulus, something learned and the salivation became a conditioned response, or learned response. Ultimately, conditioned responses are not absolute, with a lack of stimuli presence the conditioned response can lessen until forgotten, this is known as extinction. However, conditioned responses can be revived through reappearance of stimuli causing a spontaneous recovery.

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Questions: 1. Who was Ivan Pavlov and what did he discover? 2. Briefly explain Pavlov’s experiments with dogs and identify the following: A. B. C. D. E. F.

Unconditioned stimulus (UCS) Unconditioned response (UCR) In the dog experiment which was the UCS and which was the UCR? Neutral Stimulus (NS) Conditioned stimulus (CS) Conditioned response (CR)

3. What is the real world application this section discusses? Be sure to identify the UCS, UCR, NS, CS, and CR. 4. Explain how higher-order conditioning or second-order conditioning happens 5. Briefly explain the general processes of classical conditioning such as acquisition, extinction, spontaneous recovery, stimulus discrimination, and stimulus generalization 6. What is behaviorism? 7. Who was John B. Watson 8. What famous experiment did he and his student Rosalie Rayner carried out? What was the UCS, CS, UCR, and CR?

What were the implications of such experiment?

6.3 Operant Conditioning To further the study of associative learning, psychologist B. F. Skinner felt classical conditioning was limited to reflexive behaviors derived from existing behaviors and did not take into account entirely new skills learned. Skinner felt consequences associated from behavior could prove as effective learning, this was known as operant conditioning.

According to the law of effects, a favorable or satisfying consequence will result in repeated behavior, while a negative will result is lessened behavior. This system of reinforcement was further explored in Skinner’s study with small animals in a box. In positive and negative reinforcement, things were given or taken away to influence behavior. The animals learned that with a neutral stimulus, the result was food in a form of positive reinforcement.

Classical Conditioning

Conditionin g approach

An unconditioned stimulus (such as food) is paired with a neutral stimulus (such as a bell). The neutral stimulus eventually becomes the conditioned stimulus, which brings about the conditioned response (salivation).

Stimulus timing

The stimulus occurs immediately before the response.

Operant Conditioning

The target behavior is followed by reinforcement or punishment to either strengthen or weaken it, so that the learner is more likely to exhibit the desired behavior in the future.

The stimulus (either reinforcement or punishment) occurs soon after the response.

A system of positive and negative punishment can also be utilized.

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In positive punishment, something can be added to decrease likelihood of behavior while in negative something can be removed to decrease likelihood of behavior as well. Despite the clear results, animals and humans encompass much different needs in motivation. ○ In this, primary reinforcers -- biological wants and needs such as food -- may not always be as effective. ○ In certain cases, secondary reinforcers, such as money or praise, can also encourage behavior.

Questions: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7.

8.

9. 10. 11. 12.

What is operant conditioning and how does it work? Look at table 6.1 and compare and contrast classical and operant conditioning What is the Law of Effect, who proposed it, and how did it influence B. F. Skinner’s scientific experiments? Briefly describe the “Skinner box” What do the words positive, negative, reinforcement, and punishment mean in terms of operant conditioning? What is the difference between reinforcement and punishment? Give an example of the following: a. positive reinforcement b. negative reinforcement c. positive punishment d. negative punishment e. What are the advantages and disadvantages of using punishment? f. How does shaping work? g. Give examples of primary and secondary reinforcers h. What is your reaction to the everyday connection topic “Behavior Modification in Children”? Review table 6.3 and using your own words, describe how each of those schedules of reinforcement work i. Give an example (not found in this section) of each of those schedules of reinforcement j. Which of those schedules of reinforcement is most effective? In this section there is another topic in a box under the “Connect the Concepts”. It’s about Gambling and the Brain. Briefly describe this section and give your reaction to it. Compare behaviorists Watson and Skinner against Edward C. Tolman. How did their ideas differ? What is a cognitive map? How does latent learning work? Can you think of an example?

6.4 Observational Learning (Modeling)

Despite previously discussed forms of learning, the simplest and equally effective form of learning can derive simply from looking. ● ●

Through observational learning, one can learn from watching and imitating others. By watching a model, one can experience both reinforcement as well as punishment through the models’ action and consequences; these are respectively termed as vicarious reinforcement and vicarious punishment.

Questions: 1. 2. 3. 4.

Define observational learning Describe what is happening in Figure 6.16 How were Albert Bandura’s ideas different from the strict behaviorists? How is learning happening in Figure 6.17?

STEPS IN THE MODELING PROCESS 5. What are the different steps Bandura is describing, that need to take place before observational learning occurs? 6. What is vicarious reinforcement? How does it affect learning? 7. What is vicarious punishment? How does it affect learning? 8. What is your reaction to the topic presented in the box “WHAT DO YOU THINK?” about violent media and aggression?...