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PSYCH LECTURE NOTES FOR EXAM 2...

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PSYCH 100 – Andrew Peck PSU EXAM 2 

A self-fulfilling prophecy is a prediction that directly or indirectly causes itself to become true, by the very terms of the prophecy itself, due to positive feedback between belief and behavior.

Social Influences Normative social influence (norms)  =expectations about how group members should act the same  social rewards/punishments  ex. Pittsburg shirt on campus / parking office Informational social influence  = we accept other’s opinions about reality as true  ex: follow the crowd / where is Rob? (the video, people after people started to looking for Rob) / Banana study (banana emits electric shock so gorillas won’t grab it, new gorilla enters and wants to grab, others say “nonono don’t grab it” “why?” “tradition”) Social influences play a role in:  conformity  compliance  anonymity (deindividuation)  decision making (bystander effect) [Zimbardo guards / prisoners video (the Experiment_ movie)  people got caught up in their role (guards)/ even Zimbardo forgot his own sense of ethics] Conformity:  =adjust your behavior/attitude to match group’s  “Come on…everybody is doing it”  Elevator example: (everybody turns to the wall, the rest turns to the wall  I follow other people  social pressure = people adapts others’ view of reality)  Asch (1955) o True subjects always responded last o Confederates correct 76% of time o When confederate pick wrong line so did subject more than 33% of time  Most likely to conform when: o We feel insecure o Group = 3 +members o No dissenter o Admire or like a group o Being right matters o Social outcome matters  Compliance o Obey a command o “I was just following orders” o Holocaust o Milgram Shock Studies

PSYCH 100 – Andrew Peck PSU EXAM 2 2/3 of the “teachers” (people who played the role) shocked the “student” until end  teachers displayed genuine agony  Ethics!!  No emotional after-effect o Most likely to obey when:  Legitimate authority figure  Close by (ex: Mom says clean the room and stand there til we clean)  Victim depersonalized at a distance (depersonalized = give a specific role, no longer a person – we don’t know them  we are more likely to obey to do things that can harm the victim)  Deindividuation: feeling less accountable for actions (break law, act embarrassing, getting caught) o Does deindividuation means more aggression?  Master individuality with uniforms, constumes, hoodies (cover head, hide identity)  During Vietnam war, people pretend t be someone else to kill people more easily and get caught up  No dissenter Deindividuation:  Zimbardo (1970) experiment (another one):  Group 1 – “Deindividualized” (called): o Nameless, hoods & lab coats, dark room  Group 2 – “Individualized” o Name tags, own clothes, bright room  Both gives “shock” to people,  people in “deindividualized” act more poorly (give more and longer shock)  Does deindividuation always means more aggression? Bring out the evil side of human nature?  Johnson & Downing (1979) experiment o Idea = costumes encourage role appropriate behavior o Group 1 – KKK costumes (evil) / Individual o Group 2 – KKK costumes/ Deindividualized o Group 3 – Nurse costumes/ Individual o Group 4 – Nurse costumes/ Deindividualized  when we’re deindividualized, the bad gets worse and the good gets better  it’s an amplifier (KKK costume act more evil / people in nurse costume and identified)  how we’re deindividualized matter but matter less than how we feel about the costume. 

PSYCH 100 – Andrew Peck PSU EXAM 2  Does deindividuation means less awareness of “self” & morals? o Hard to attend to 2 things at once (math and sing fight song) o The more we focus on others, environment, the less we focus on ourselves & our morals o Role of drugs/ alcohol Bystander intervention:  Kitty Genovese story (1964)  19 yr. old Maryland woman (1986)  Coin/pencil dropping story  Beer store story  Good Samaritan Lecturers  Bystanders are less likely to help another when other bystanders are present? Why?? Nobody else is helping so I don’t have to help either?  Social influences (presence of other people) serve to: o Define the situation as trivial  Most emergencies begin ambiguously - Man lying in the street - scream  Look to others for information  Pluralistic Ignorance Everyone misleads everyone else by defining the situation as trivial  Smoke in waiting room story - 1 subj. = report 75% of time in 2 min. - groups = report 13% of time in 6 min.  if the other people don’t act, then maybe the emergency is trivial  Hurt foot story:  1 subj = assit 70% of the time  2 subj = assist 30% of the time  same o Diffuse responsibility  When emergency is clear - Kitty Genovese story - Maryland women story  Neighbors couldn’t see each other, but each knew that others were present  “Certainly someone else must have done something by now, or will?  Intercom story (experiment)  Emergency NOT ambiguous  Subject aware that experimenter could not hear cries for help. - 1 subj, = report 85% of time - 3 subj. = report 62% of time

PSYCH 100 – Andrew Peck PSU EXAM 2

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- 6 subj. = report 31% of the time -  “I didn’t feel like I needed to step up” But as soon as 1 help, others come to:  Subway story / flat tire story Awareness of “Bystander Intervention”  Male sprawled out on the hallway floor o “awares” = 43% reported o “unawares” = 25% reported Characteristic of victim:  More similar to us, more we’re likely to help - Dime story - Election day story Vision

Sensation:  = detection of energy in environment (e.g., sun light)  Senses detect certain energies only: o Can’t see:  X-ray  UV rays  Infrared rays  But very sensitive to energies we’re aware of o 1 gram of salt in 500 liters of water o 1 drop perfume in a 3 rom apartment o Wing of a bee on cheek o Ticking watch from 20 feet o Candle flame from miles  Reality (what we see) is constructed  Flow of light into eye o Pupil (hole) o Iris (colored eye muscle) o Lens (focuses light on back of eye) o Retina  Back of the eye (inside)  “movie screen”  image UPSIDE DOWN  Brain detects features of visual scene: o Contours o Horizontal/vertical/diagonal lines o Motion  Feature detection problems with brain or eyes  Hermann Grid (white dots but whenever we look at it becomes black dots  super headache) + Motion detectors example

PSYCH 100 – Andrew Peck PSU EXAM 2

Accommodation:  Process of adjusting curvature of lens to project image onto retina  Acuity problems o Near sighted (farther image = blurry )  Image focused before retina) o Far-sighted (closer image = blurry)  Image focused behind retina Retinal surface:  2 types of light receptor cells: o Rods for night vision (black & white) o Cones for day vision Optic Nerve:  Sends cone and rod signals to brain  No light receptors where optic nerve connects o eye (optic disk)  Brain “fills in” the blind spot Color vision:  Color is psychological o 3 types of cones: - red cones (long wave length) - green cones (medium wave length) - blue cones (short wave length) o trichromats = normal vision color o dichromats = only 2 full cones systems - most can’t distinguish red/green o monochromats = only 1 full cone system  Opponent-process Theory o Later in visual process o 3 pairs of color receptors - red or green - blue or yellow - black or white o Color ≠ absolute o Color = context dependent Perception: brain can only form one reality at a time  Organize, interpret energy  Visual capture: = the dominance of vision over other sense modalities in creating a percept (ex. wave  motion sickness) o Old movies/ McGurk effect o Omniverse theaters o Motion sickness  vision = strong, overrides  Selectively attend to information o Examples:

PSYCH 100 – Andrew Peck PSU EXAM 2 -

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Cocktail party = many stuff around you but can only focus on one thing (process of selective focusing, listening) - Neckercube (same information, but can be perceived be many different ways) - Room sounds - Body pressures Gestalt Principle: o Whole = more than sum of parts - Organization - Predisposed to see “the whole” o Figure = focus o Ground = background  How do we organize pieces into units? o The 7 C’s: - Contour (shape) - Color - Closeness (proximity – spatial) - Continuity - Closure (dots when we mentally connect the dots to make a form - fill in the blank) - Connectedness (already connected forms) - Common fate (same movement) o Role of expectancy & reversibility - Ex: photo of cow (White)  difficile a voir mais prof donne un hint et on voit la vache - Ex: on percit les choses en le liant au context ( ABC, 12 13 14)  Depth Perception: o Ability to see 3D is innate (visual cliff) o 2 dimensional image on retina  height & width (no depth  illusion) o How see in 3D?? o Binocular Depth cues (requires 2 working eyes)  Retinal disparity  Eyes separated (2.5 inches)  Each eye gets slightly different image - Viewmaster - Finger “sausage” - stereograms  Convergence= In order to perceive depth properly, your eyes must move slightly inward or converge. In so doing, people are able to determine if objects are close to them or far away.  eyes converge more for near objects  eye positions cues brain o Monocular depth cues (requires 1 working eye to see)  Relative size

PSYCH 100 – Andrew Peck PSU EXAM 2 - Larger = closer Interposition - full object = closer  Relative motion - Faster object = closer  Relative clarity - Clearer details = closer  Relative height (ignore when read in textbook because ramble) - Closer to the horizon = farther from you  Linear perspective (do not confuse this with convergence) - Closer to intersection = farther from you  Relative brightness (shading) - Closer to light source = brighter  Texture gradient (monocular cue): gradual change in appearance of object due to position  coarser, more apparent if close / less coarse, less apparent if far Learning 

Definition:  A relatively permanent change in one’s behavior because of experience o Can be environment-specific o Can be context-specific  Basis of education, therapy, games, etc. Learn consistencies:  Associations  Contingencies (expectancies)  Rules  Relationships Behaviorism:  Psychology should be based on observable behaviors  No motives, inner thoughts, beliefs  Classical conditioning (learning): outside of our awareness (biological reflex)  Mircrowave bell – food – salivate  Doctor – shot – pain  Dentist – drill – pain  Pavlov’s dog story (dog drools as soon as their tongue touches food / then drools whenever it hears the sounds that is related to the arriving of the food) o Overview:  Can start with biological reaction / reflex  Add on artificial / neutral stimulus  Train / condition the body  Body now reacts to artificial stimulus

PSYCH 100 – Andrew Peck PSU EXAM 2

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o Unconditioned stimulus (UCS)  Unlearned stimulus  Naturally evokes body response  Examples: food, loud noise o How to make a conditioned stimulus (CS):  Start with a neutral stimulus (bell)…  Pair with UCS (food) repeatedly  Neutral stimulus must come first  Done when previously neutral stimulus (Bell) elicits biological reflex (salivation) by itself o Conditioned response (CR):  Some natural body reflex  Now in response to CS  Example: salivation, nausea o Review:  Food (UCS)  Salivtion (UCR)  Bell (CS) + Food (UCS)  Salivation (UCR)  Bell (CS)  Salivation (CR) o Extinction:  = when CS (bell) doesn’t lead to CR (salivation)  decrease in level of CR (salivation) until gone o Spontaneous Conditioning :  Spontaneous Recovery  = CR return, but weaker o shows that extinction only suppresses CR o Generalization:  CR to a stimulus similar to CS  Examples:  Little Albert Video (introduce rat, scared of rat, then of rabbit, fur coat….)  Single traumatic event learning (phobias, car leaning, rape, robbery)  Chemotherapy patients & food o Discrimination:  = adaptive  = diff. stimuli require diff. responses  Chemotherapy patients and maple ice cream Operant conditioning (learning) o Overview:  About “stimulus-response” relationships  About consequences of conscious decisions (rewards/punishments)  About how consequences affect future actions  Reinforcers (rewards)  Outcome that  repeat behavior

PSYCH 100 – Andrew Peck PSU EXAM 2  tangible ($$$) or inherent (praise) Positive reinforcers  behavior by adding  “If I get ___, then I get ___” (food, praise, attention, grade, $ $$)  Negative reinforcers   repeat behavior by removing…  “If I ___, ____ disappears”  Reinforcement warnings!!!  Hard to identify reinforcers  Reinforcer conflicts (e,g. peers)  Reinforcer decrease in effectiveness over time  Reinforce must be maintained  Overjustification effect =presence of an extrinsic reward can decrease internal motivation to perform a task  Reinforce group or individual?  Seen as manipulative  Punishment  Any outcome that  repeat behavior  Most effective when immediate and consistent   intensity =  results (vs ethics)  Problems with punishment: o What is NOT taught?  By itself, no feedback about how to correct behavior o What is taught?  Avoid behavior in that context  Don’t swear near mom  Don’t smoke near mom  How to punish – authority sets he example  Fear the punisher   o Is it really punishment?  “Lois” (“I got something I want – something I hate went away  repeat)  “Go to the Principal’s office!” o Using punishment effectively  Couple with feedback  Couple with positive reinforcement Observational learning: o Learn by watching o Imitate role models:  Most effective when consistent  Imitate pro/anti social behavior 

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PSYCH 100 – Andrew Peck PSU EXAM 2  

Bobo doll story (Kids watching adult play with the doll I a room full of toy, then asked to enter the room to play and did the same thing the teacher did, hitting the doll) TV violence...