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PERSONALIT Y

Although every individual is distinctive, we perceive some people to be more alike than others in the ways in which they engage with their social and physical worlds. These patterns of similarities and differences are the province of personality. Personality refers to the complex network of emotions, cognitive processes, and behaviours that provide coherence and direction to a person’s life. Our personality affects our goals, how we feel, how we act, and how we see ourselves and other people. The study of personality includes different concepts of personality, personality assessment, and cultural and individual differences in personality. This topic focuses on concepts of personality and personality assessment. Key Ideas • Personality is a socially and culturally constructed concept. • Many different descriptions of the structure of personality have been proposed. • Ways of measuring personality are linked to particular beliefs about its structure. Areas of Learning • Psychodynamic, humanistic, and trait theories of personality; and the main forms of personality assessment used today, including standardised self-report inventories, clinical interviews, and behavioural observations • Psychological principles concerning personality in everyday experiences and events (e.g. character depictions in the popular media) and in psychological interventions, including assertiveness training • Application of these psychological principles to social issues (e.g. personality disorders, the relationship between personality and learning styles, and the relationship between culture and personality) and personal growth (e.g. gaining greater insight into one’s own personality and the factors that have shaped it) • Investigation designs and methods for assessing psychological responses used to study personality, including validity and reliability

• Ethical issues associated with research and applications in the area of personality

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Psychodynamic, humanistic, and trait conceptions of personality: Psychodynamic perspective: Freud

Freud proposed that the development of an individual’s personality is derived from the dynamics of the unconscious mind where one’s past experiences are the major determinants of future behaviour. He saw people’s personality as based on desire [id] rather than on reason [ego & superego] stemming from his theory of the Pyschosexual Stages of Behaviour, developed in childhood. Freud proposed the theory of Psychosexual Stages of Personality Development. These five stages [oral, anal, phallic, latency and genital] must be developed. Interruption, or incompletion of each of these stages during childhood would result in ‘fixation’, that is a preoccupation with a particular stage throughout life, or ‘neurosis’ resulting from repression. These repressions result in defence mechanisms, such as regression, sublimation, displacement, projection, etc. Coping or defence mechanisms begin to develop as children attempt to avoid failure or rejection in the face of life’s growing expectations and demands. The Id, operates mainly, during the first 3 Psychosexual stages, the oral, anal and phallic stages. These instincts, or irrational needs, require immediate gratification. Development, therefore, is partially dependent on the transformation of the so-called animal desires into socially acceptable rational behaviour and this is achieved through the maturity of the ego and superego. It contains the basic motivation drivers for our physiological needs such as food , water, sex and warmth. All emotions are housed in the Id as well as all unconscious forces. The Id also operates on the pleasure principle. This drives the person toward instant gratification and is seen in infants who have not yet developed their ego and superego. It operates on the ‘gimme, gimme’ level, wanting everything immediately. Freud believed that sex and aggression are the two most predominant instinctive drives of the id. The ego is the servant of the id. The ego’s purpose is to satisfy the desires or demands of the id but restrains the id’s demands until they can be met according to the norms of society. The ego is equivalent to the self - the ‘you’ within you. The superego appears when the child is approximately 5 years old. It operates on the moral or the perfection principle. The superego consists of the morals taught by society. It exercises control over the ego and id’s urges. It makes the individual feel good for having behaved according to society's morals. Behaviour, according to Freud, then, can be defined as the result of the interaction of these three personality components. For example, when the id signals to the ego that the body is in need of fluids, the ego, evaluating reality, attempts to choose an appropriate form of behaviour to satisfy the id. This would be accomplished by conforming to acceptable social behaviours, such as not drinking from a puddle or stealing soda, meeting the standards of the superego. If there is struggle between the id, ego and superego Freud proposes that the ego tries to resolve this conflict. Often it resolves the conflict via defence mechanisms, which are repressions that prevent disturbing anxiety provoking thoughts to come into the conscious whilst the conflict occurs. Although repressed they are usually channelled into our behaviours which we cannot see, i.e. they are unconscious. If the id, ego and superego are out of balance neurosis may result.

Summary of Freud’s psychodynamic theory of personality o

Theory of structure of the mind: ▪ Conscious – thoughts we are aware of ▪ Preconscious - not conscious, but can be made conscious through a cue ▪ Unconscious – inaccessible to our consciousness, cannot become aware of these thoughts, feelings

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Theory of personality: ▪ Id – unconscious instincts – born with our id, gets basic needs met ▪ Ego – deals with the demands of reality and uses reasoning to make decisions, takes reality into consideration ▪ Superego – the moral branch, develops by the age of 5 “conscience” ▪ In a healthy person the ego is the strongest so that it can satisfy the needs of the id, not upset the superego and still take into consideration the reality of the situation

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Defence mechanisms ▪ the ego resolves the conflict among id, ego and superego through defence mechanisms ● Repression – scary thoughts are kept from awareness ● Denial – refusal to acknowledge reality ● Intellectualisation – not focusing on personal aspects of a problem, (eg organising funeral arrangements, no emotion) ● Projection – unacknowledged feelings are attributed to others ● Reaction formation – turn unacceptable feelings into their opposite ● Sublimation – unacceptable feelings are turned into socially acceptable actions ● Rationalisation – actions or feelings are explained away ● Displacement – unacceptable feelings are directed towards another target ● Passive aggression – socially unacceptable angers expressed via a lack of cooperation

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Theory of personality development: Psychosexual development ▪ Oral stage – birth to 18 months child is fixed on oral pleasures ● too much or too little can results in oral fixation ▪ Anal stage – 18 months to 3 years the child is fixed on bowel movements ● Anal fixation can result in obsession with cleanliness and control ▪ Phallic stage – 3 to 6 years child is fixed on the genitals (Oedipus/Elektra complex) ▪ Latency stage – 6 years to puberty – sexual urges remain repressed, interact with same sex peers ▪ Genital phase – puberty and on – resurgence of sex drive in adolescence (Remember by order of stages “old age pensioners like gravy”!)

NB – Freudian theories have little relevance in modern clinical psychology.

Humanistic conceptions of personality During the 1950s and 1960s, humanistic approaches to understanding personality became influential. The emphasis was on seeing people in relation to their environments and on the meaning that people found in life rather than on psychoanalytic or behavioural perspectives. Carl Rogers was most influential in the area of psychotherapy, but he also promoted theoretical approaches that considered individuals as changing, aspiring and developing. He endorsed the concept of defences, but emphasised that people want to be accepted and considered worthy by other people. Rogers believed that an individual’s expectations of what others expect can lead the individual to sacrifice their ‘true self’ to meet those expectations. People’s ‘true self’, which is their core essence, is often distorted into a ‘false self’. For Rogers, the most basic tool in understanding personality was empathy. In particular, Rogers considered that it is more important to understand the meaning that a person constructs rather than attempt to describe his or her personality traits. This is often referred to as a ‘person-centred approach’. Like Abraham Maslow (see below), Rogers proposed that people had an actualising tendency, that is, a tendency to work towards achieving their potential. In person-centred therapy, the therapist listens, empathises and allows the client to find their own answers to their problems. The therapist’s role is to allow the client to feel accepted and to understand their own feelings. The Rogerian concept of ‘unconditional positive regard’ has also influenced approaches to child rearing. Many theorists consider a child’s self esteem, and their ability to achieve their potential, are nurtured and developed in such an accepting environment. While the person-centred approach has been influential for some time, and is still influential in many counselling approaches, Rogerian style non-directive therapy has recently also been used in research as a placebo therapy against which to evaluate other therapies. Maslow’s hierarchy of needs Another way of understanding the structure and development of personality is to consider the motivations or needs of a person at a particular time. Abraham Maslow published his first conceptualisation of his theory of people’s hierarchical needs over 50 years ago and it has since become one of the most popular and often cited theories of human motivation. Maslow (1954) suggested a hierarchy of human needs based on two areas of need: deficiency needs and growth needs. Within the deficiency needs, each need must be met before moving to the next higher level. Once each of these needs has been satisfied, if at some future time a deficiency is detected, the individual will act to remove the deficiency. The lower four levels are: 1. Physiological needs such as hunger, thirst, bodily comforts, etc. are directed towards maintaining the human body. If we are unwell, then little else matters until we recover. 2. Safety and security needs are about putting a roof over our heads and keeping ourselves from harm. 3. Belonging and love are about affiliating with others or being accepted. 4. Esteem needs involve achieving, being competent, gaining approval and gaining recognition. According to Maslow, an individual is able to act upon the higher level, or ‘growth’ needs only if the lower level, or ‘deficiency’ needs are met. Maslow’s initial conceptualisation included only one growth need, self-actualisation, to develop wisdom and to ‘become what we are capable of becoming’.

Maslow later differentiated two lower level growth needs prior to the general level of selfactualisation (Maslow & Lowery, 1998) and one beyond that level (Maslow, 1971). His revised model included: 5. The need to know and understand, and 6. The need for aesthetic beauty. Self-actualisation was divided into: 7. Self-actualisation, which is realising one’s own potential, and 8. Transcendence, which is helping others to achieve their potential. Maslow at one point suggested only about two percent of the world’s population were selfactualisers. Maslow described the following qualities of self-actualising people. • They embrace realities of the world (including themselves) rather than denying or avoiding them. • They are spontaneous in their ideas and actions. • They are creative. • They are interested in solving problems, including the problems of others. • They feel a closeness to other people, and generally appreciate life. • They have a system of morality that is fully internalised. • They judge others without prejudice. At the very top of Maslow’s hierarchy of needs is self-transcendence. Maslow believed that we should study and cultivate ‘peak experiences’ as a way of providing a route to achieve personal growth, integration and fulfilment. Peak experiences are those in which an individual feels one with the universe. They bring a sense of purpose and a sense of integration to the individual. All individuals are capable of peak experiences wherein they transcend, or go beyond, the limitations of the self.

Summary of Maslow’s theory of personality The focus is on the healthy personality rather than abnormalities. ●

Abraham Maslow believed: o o

We should aim for peak experiences where we feel at one with the universe – go beyond the limitations of ourselves Hierarchy of human needs based on two areas ● Deficiency needs and growth needs ● Needs at the bottom of the hierarchy must be met before higher needs can be fulfilled 1. physiological needs – hunger, thirst, comfort, health 2. safety and security – shelter, no fear, protection 3. belonging and love – affiliating with others, family friends 4. esteem needs – achieving, being competent, gaining approval 5. self actualisation – personal fulfilment and growth a. need to know and understand b. need for aesthetic beauty c. realising own potential and d. transcendence – helping others reach their potential (these later levels were added after the original theory)

Maslow has set up a hierarchy of five levels of basic needs. Beyond these needs, higher levels of needs exist. These include needs for understanding, aesthetic appreciation and purely spiritual needs. In the levels of the five basic needs, the person does not feel the second need until the demands of the first have been satisfied, nor the third until the second has been satisfied, and so on. Maslow's basic needs are as follows: Physiological Needs These are biological needs. They consist of needs for oxygen, food, water, and a relatively constant body temperature. They are the strongest needs because if a person were deprived of all needs, the physiological ones would come first in the person's search for satisfaction. Safety Needs When all physiological needs are satisfied and are no longer controlling thoughts and behaviours, the needs for security can become active. Adults have little awareness of their security needs except in times of emergency or periods of disorganization in the social structure (such as widespread rioting). Children often display the signs of insecurity and the need to be safe. Needs of Love, Affection and Belongingness When the needs for safety and for physiological well-being are satisfied, the next class of needs for love, affection and belongingness can emerge. Maslow states that people seek to overcome feelings of loneliness and alienation. This involves both giving and receiving love, affection and the sense of belonging. Needs for Esteem When the first three classes of needs are satisfied, the needs for esteem can become dominant. These involve needs for both self-esteem and for the esteem a person gets from others. Humans have a need for a stable, firmly based, high level of self-respect, and respect from others. When these needs are satisfied, the person feels selfconfident and valuable as a person in the world. When these needs are frustrated, the person feels inferior, weak, helpless and worthless. Needs for Self-Actualization When all of the foregoing needs are satisfied, then and only then are the needs for self-actualization activated. Maslow describes self-actualization as a person's need to be and do that which the person was "born to do." "A musician must make music, an artist must paint, and a poet must write." These needs make themselves felt in signs of restlessness. The person feels on edge, tense, lacking something, in short, restless. If a person is hungry, unsafe, not loved or accepted, or lacking self-esteem, it is very easy to know what the person is restless about. It is not always clear what a person wants when there is a need for self-actualization.

Trait conceptions of personality We often describe someone’s personality in terms of the qualities or traits that comprise it. ‘She is brave.’ ‘He is conscientious.’ ‘They are well suited because they are both outgoing and they both like to party.’ We are so used to describing aspects of personality that we rarely stop to think about the aspects of personality that we notice, or the ways that we describe what we notice. The words ‘brave’ and ‘conscientious’ are commonplace adjectives that could refer to behaviours, attitudes or personality traits. However, in the process of describing personality traits we are also making comparisons. We compare one person with another, or we compare someone with our own internalised understanding of what is average. If we have noticed that ‘she is brave’, it is because it has appeared to us that she is showing more bravery than we consider average. Our internalised understanding of what is average will depend on the information available to us and on the comparisons we have been able to make. For example, when we describe appearance, we might use the descriptive category ‘tall’. The categories ‘tall’ and ‘short’ refer to the ends of the continuum or dimension of height. It is simple to use the descriptive category ‘tall’ to describe a man who is 190 cm in height; what about the man who is 175 cm in height? He is neither ‘short’ nor ‘tall’ but ‘around average’. Our choice of words to describe someone’s height implies comparison with other people, or with our own internalised understanding of what is average. In Bangladesh, a man of 175 cm in height will be considered ‘tall’ in comparison with other Bangladeshi men. Behaviour that appears to be very ‘conscientious’ to an Australian student might appear to be no more conscientious than is average to a student in China. Just as the reference standards for height and conscientiousness vary from culture to culture, the reference standard for personality traits is likely to be different from culture to culture, and even from subculture to subculture within a culture. The description and assessment of personality also depends on which traits are observed or considered worthy of notice. Many personality traits have been suggested and a considerable amount of psychological research has been directed towards determining what traits best describe or assess personality. This research has also considered whether there is a universal system of personality traits common to all cultures and how descriptions and ways of understanding personality differ from culture to culture. Other research has investigated whether differences in personality are the result of biological influences, learning processes, social context or some other factors.

Hans Eysenck: Extroversion–introversion and neuroticism Hans Eysenck was a behaviourist who believed that learned habits were of great importance. However, he also believed that personality differences were based in our genetic inheritance. This is the aspect of personality called temperament. Eysenck used a statistical technique called factor analysis. This technique extracts a number of ‘dimensions’ or ‘factors’ from large masses of data. (For example, asking a large number of people to rate themselves on long lists of adjectives results in raw data from which correlations can be derived and some dimensions or factors identified.) Eysenck’s research (1967 and 1972) found two main dimensions of temperament: neuroticism and extroversion–introversion. 1. Neuroticism is the name Eysenck gave to a dimension of personality style that ranges from calm and collected to anxious and ‘nervous’. His research showed that people who were more anxious and nervous (neurotic) were more susceptible to a variety of ‘nervous disorders’ called n...