PSY311 Handout A17 - Summary Personality PDF

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PSY 311 THEORIES OF PERSONALITY

F. Jak Icoz, MA, MSc, PsyD Candidate Autumn 2017

THE STUDY OF PERSONALITY

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DIFFERENT WORLDVIEWS Formist worldview q฀Categorizing, defining, making generalizations , assuming meaningful distinctions among things q฀Trait approaches Mechanistic worldview q฀Looking for cause and effect, directionality, sequentiality. Cause precedes effect. There is a time element. Effect can become cause in the next chain of events. q฀Behavioral, cognitivist approaches. There are elements of mechanistic approach in psychoanalysis.

Organismic worldview q฀Depends on how the organism is defined. Growth changes are not arbitrary, there is some end point, some ideal end. q฀Humanistic approach, Gestalt approach, Systems theory, most psychoanalytic theorires have elements of both mechanistic and organismic views. Contextual worldview q฀The historical event is alive in the present. q฀The emphasis is on the interface between the organism and the environment. The two are entwined. q฀What happens in the present cannot be separated from history and vice verca. Historical event is tied to current moment. q฀We create our past every moment of our lives. We construct things. q฀Existential approach, Social-cognitive approaches.

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SCHOOLS OF THE STUDY OF PERSONALITY Psychodynamic

Phenomenological (Maslow, Rogers),

Psychoanalytic (Freud)

Existential (Binswanger, Laing, May, Frankl, Perls),

Neopsychoanalytic (Jung, Adler, Horney, Fromm)

Cognitive (Kelly)

Ego Psychology (Hartmann, Winnicott, Jacobson) Object Rlations (Sullivan, Klein, Erikson, Fairbairn) Self Psychology (Kohut, Ornstein, Storolow)

Trait (Allport, Cattell, Eysenck, Costa & McCrae), Behavioral (Pavlov, Watson, Wolpe , Skinner, Dollard & Miller), Social-Cognitive (Rotter, Bandura, Mischel), Cognitive, Information processing approach (Ellis, Michenbaum, Beck)

ROLE OF THEORY IN THE STUDY OF PERSONALITY q฀Theories are philosophical points of views offering frameworks within which to explain the functioning of the person, and to make inferences about the person. q฀Theories provide the illusion that understanding a person is possible. q฀Theories are not right or wrong. The concern should be: how useful a theory is? q฀A theory should lead to a systematic expansion of the available knowledge about a particualr phenomenon. q฀A theory is useful when it is able to generate predictions that are confirmed by data.

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What is a theory? A theory is a set of ideas that the theorist creates. It is a way of looking at phenomena. What constitutes a theory? A theory consists of: a cluster of assumptions that are systematically related to each other, and a set of operational definitions that relate the assumptions to the phenomena observed. What do theories of personality explain? Structure: refers to characteristics of the person (enduring, stable aspects) and how theyare organized in relation to one another. Process: refers to the motivational aspects of personality (why do wedo what wedo) Growth and development: account for changes in structure from infancy to maturity and for the corresponding developments in process. Psychopathology and behavior change: refers to an explanation of the psychologicallyunhealthy condition and what is involved in the alteration of that condition.

Criteria for evaluating theories: Comprehensiveness is the theory’s capacity to produce predictions that cover the range of empirical events the theory claims to deal with. Does the theory account for a wide variety of data? Different kinds of phenomena? How significant are the facts accounted for by the theory? Parsimony : How economical and internally consistent is the theory? How simple is the theory? Research Relevance (empirical validity) refers to the theory’s capacity to generate predictions that are confirmed by data. Is the theory empirically translated? Does the theory have predictive power? Does the theory contain testable hypotheses?

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ISSUES IN PERSONALITY THEORY Each theory is based on a set of assumptions about human nature. These assumptions reflect the theorists’ positions on some major issues about human nature. Free will vs Determinism Do we consciously direct our actions, or are they governed by other factors? Conscious vs Unconscious Is human behavior controlled by processes of which we are aware or by factors of which we are unaware? Nature vs Nurture (Heredity vs environment) Are we influenced more by heredity or by environment?

Person vs Situation To what extent are people consistent in the way they think, act and respond to various situations? Do individuals posses stable traits that are consistent accross situations? Situation specificity=little stability to human behavior Trait and stability=behavioral stability accross situations Interactionists: behavior is always determined by both variables Internal vs external determinants of behavior Is behavior determined by what is going on inside the person or outside the person? Uniqueness vs Universality Is the personality of each person unique, or are there broad personality patterns that fit large number of persons?

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Equilibrium vs Growth Are we motivated simply to maintain a physiological balance or state of equilibrium, or does the urge to grow and develop shape our behavior? Optimism vs Pessimism Are we basically good or evil? Past vs Present Is personality fixed by early events in our lives, or can it be affected by experiences in adulthood? Holistic vs Analytic Should the person be understood in terms of an organic whole, or should it be studied piece by piece?

Normal vs Abnormal Does the study of psychologically disturbed provide a means to understanding the normal person? Is the difference one of quality or quantity? Relation between cognition-affect-behavior In influencing behavior, which is more important, cognition or affect? Objectivity vs subjectivity Causal laws vs interpretive account How are the theoretician’s values embedded in and shape his/her psychological perspective? Is it possible to be neutral with respect to values?

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HOW ARE THEORIES TESTED?

FACTORS TO PAY ATTENTION TO WHILE STUDYING THEORIES q฀Name of the theoritician q฀Name of the theory

q฀How does the theory explain personality development and growth?

q฀Core tendency of the theory

q฀Are there any personality types defined?

q฀Basic assuption on which the theory is based

q฀How does the theory explain anxiety?

q฀Determinants of behavior (factors accounting for behavior) q฀Basic motivation (what motivates behavior?) q฀Basic constructs of the theory

q฀How does the person deal with anxiety? (defense mechanisms) q฀Assessment methods q฀How does the theory lend itself to research? Are there empirically valiated constructs?

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THE PSYCHOANALYTIC APPROACH: SIGMUND FREUD

INTRODUCTION Psychoanalytic notions stress physiological, social and psychological aspects. Physiological base refers to the physiological development of the infant permitting the unfolding of the psychosexual and psychosocial development. The oral, anal and phallic stages of development affect the drive system. Social aspect refers to the outer organizers of the mind, i.e., influence of basic care giver on the child. Emotional tie developing the experience of the self and of the other. Psychological aspects are to be understood rather than measured. It is like mental reconstructiojn of the psychic apparatus. Mental life is divided into three parts: conscious, preconscious, unconscious

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INSTINCTS q฀A sign that the organism is in a state of deprivation. q฀Instincts are mental representation of physiological need. q฀The mind transforms bodily energy into a need. q฀When there is a need, there is tension in the body. This tension is translated into mental representation. q฀Aim of the need is to decrease the tension by satisfying the need. q฀The need has to be mentally represented adequately so that what is satisfied is indeed the original need. q฀Instincts may be expressed; expressed in a modified way (transformed) or blocked from expression.

Content of instincts Within id, a core characteristics of personality, reside two kinds of instincts: Life instincts (self preservation): food, water, air, sex Sexual drive: energy of sexual instinct is called libido (does not have survival function) Death instinct: The biological death of the person. Aggressive drive: (a component of the death instinct) Acts of aggression toward oneself and others are partial or disguised expression of the tendency toward death. Core tendency: Maximize instinctual gratification while minimizing punishment and guilt.

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STRUCTURAL THEORY OF PERSONALITY

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PUNISHMENT AND GUILT q฀Punishment and guilt have their source in the communal requirements of society. Parents are common punishers acting in the role of social representatives. q฀Such punishments are physical damage, psychological humiliation and withdrawal of love. q฀Punishment comes from outside the person and expresses the societal requirements of communal living. Guilt comes from within the person. A portion of the mind devoted to ego processes becomes differentiated for the purpose of representing rules and regulations of society in terms of the abstract ideas of good/bad, right/wrong, called superego.

FUNCTIONS OF EGO q฀The first function of the ego is to provide the cognitive and actional structure for effective satisfaction of the instincts in the external world. q฀The second ego function is to translate instinctual demands into actions consistent with superego demands, called reality principle functioning. If one fully expresses one’s instincts in action, he will be punished by other people; if one fully recognizes one’s instincts, one experiences guilt without acting them. The instincts push for expression. This is the major conflict of life and it is eased through the process of defense.

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ANXIETY When an instinct becomes strong enough to be a potential source of conflict, an alarm reaction occurs in the form of anxiety. Anxiety is a diffuse feeling of discomfort and impending disaster. Anxiety reaction represents the anticipation of punishment and guilt based on remembrance of past punishment and guilt, and it triggers the defense process. Anxiety: Unpleasant state that signals a danger to the ego. Neurotic anxiety (feeling threatened by what may happen if impulses were gratified, originates in conflict between id-ego, has some bases in reality), Realistic anxiety (fear of tangible dangers, originates in reality) , Moral anxiety (guilt feelings, originates in conflict between id-superego, has some bases in reality)

DEFENSE MECHANISMS q฀Are denials or distortions of reality, they operate unconsciously. q฀One crucial distinction among defenses is the degree to which they distort the underlying instincts.

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q฀Psychological health: Adequate functioning of the ego q฀Psychopathology: The degree to which the defense mechanisms distort the original instinctual tension. When source of instinct is denied, the most severe forms of psychopathology. Seeking gratification of sexual/aggressive drives through infantile form (I want to be loved and accepted now) ฀ Moral pressure (past or present) (When I ask for it, my parents do not like it) ฀ Danger signal to the ego (I want to be loved and do not get it) ฀ Anxiety (a very uncomfortable, unpleasant emotional reaction which has physiological, cognitive and emotional components) ฀ Defense mechanisms (Projection) ฀ Symptom (Am I being rejected, I feel anxious, I have stomach aches)

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PERSONALITY DEVELOPMENT q฀In each stage there is a particular conflict. q฀When parents intensify the conflict by depriving or indulging the child inappropriately or inconsistently, growth is arrested through the occurrence of massive defensiveness called fixation.

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ASSESSMENT TECHNIQUES

IMPLICATIONS FOR THERAPY What purpose does psychoanalysis serve? q฀To understand sources of conflicts, q฀To become aware of old patterns that are being repeated, q฀To realize that old coping strategies are no more effective, adaptive As an approach psychoanalysis is: deterministic, pessimistic, holistic, focuses more on the past, emphasizes equilibrium rather than growth, the person rather than situation, the unconscious rather than conscious, affect rather than cognition. Emphasizes both uniqueness and universality, nature and nurture. The difference between normal and abnormal is quantitative rather than qualitative. View of human nature: A biological entity

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FREUD’S IMAGE OF HUMAN NATURE q฀Always experiencing conflict between inner forces and societal values. q฀Always experiencing tension. q฀Always defending oneself against forces of the id. q฀Ultimate goal is to reduce tension

RESEARCH IN FREUD’S THEORY Major research method: Case study Limitations of case study: Does not rely on objective observation, data not gathered systematically, the situation cannot be duplicated, conditions cannot be varied. Nature of data: may be incomplete, inaccurate and selective. The case study method is based on a small and unrepresentative sample of people.

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EVALUATION Comprehensiveness: Highly comprehensive. Wide range and diversity, attempt to explain all human behavior. Parsimony: Fails. Motivational base of theory is limited, does not allow for different more adequate explanations of behavior. Pessimistic and one sided view of human nature. Empirical validity: Reseach on a) theory of psychotherapy, b) psychosexual development. There is more support for the latter. Precision and testability: Poor. Concepts are vague, difficult to derive testable hypotheses, is derived through deductive method and subjective, based on few patients.

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REFLECTIONS Many Freudian concepts were absorbed: the unconscious, importance of childhood experiences in shaping adult behavior, the operation of the defense mechanisms. Criticisms: q฀The shortcomings of the Case study approch q฀Too much emphasis”on biological determinants of behavior q฀Too much emphasis”on sex and aggression as opposed to social determin ants of behavior q฀Deterministic picture of human behavior q฀Too much emphasis on past experiences q฀Too much attention on emotionally disturbed rather than emotionally mature q฀Ambiguous definition of some concepts Yet, q฀Has high heuris tic value: Cognitive, developmental and social psychology show interest in Freud’s ideas. Scholars outside psychology also make use of Freud’s concepts (religion, history, art, sociology, literature, criminology, political science). q฀Has high applied value: Contributions to therapy and treatement of emotional disorders, cross culturally in child rearing, sociologists in understanding dynamics of small groups and family life, also used by historians, novelists, economis ts.

THE PSYCHOANALYTIC APPROACH: THE FOUR SCHOOLS OF PSYCHOANALYSIS

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INTRODUCTION The psychology of drive (Sigmund Freud) Psychic life is seen as organised around conflict and its resolution. Anxiety, guilt, shame, inhibition, symptom formation and pathological character traits Wish/urge – defense against them - conflict

The psychology of the ego (Anna Freud, Margaret Mahler, Hartmann) Ego’s primary role Seen in terms of capacities for adaptation, reality testing and defense. These are attained slowly and expands over time. Developmental failures in the domain of adaptive capacities can be viewed as “ego defects” – affect intolerance and flooding

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The psychology of object relations (Melanie Klein, Harry Guntrip, Fairbairn, John Bowlby) The object relation as experienced by the child is what is laid down in memory and repeated. This experience is a function of the affect and wishes active in the child at the moment of the experience. Repeating these old family dramas – in order to attach or master.

The psychology of self-experience (Kohut, Kernberg) Boundaries, continuity and esteem of self in an experienced way. Degree of differentiation of self fro other has a central piece – separateness of boundaries Degree of wholeness/fragmentation, continuity/discontinuity, esteem of the self

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THE DRIVE PSYCHOLOGY As outlined by Sigmund Freud. q฀What wish is being expressed? q฀What is the relation of the wish to consciousness? q฀What is the fantasy? q฀How does it reflect a compromise between wish and defense and reality? q฀How does anxiety track back to failure of defenses? q฀How does guilt relate to conscience?

For symptoms and inhibitions: q฀How do they reflect compromise formations between wish, and defense, and conscience, and the person’s historical realities? For character: q฀How have particular urges been transformed and meshed with defensive styles so as to contribute to characteristic and ordinarily ego-syntonic modes of function?

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THE PSYCHOLOGY OF THE EGO Anna Freud (1895-1982) q฀She only worked with children. q฀She expanded the role of the ego. q฀Whereas Freud claimed that the ego was not independent of the id, Anna claimed the ego to be functioning independent of the id. This was a radical change of the Freudian psychoanalysis. q฀Anna’s most significant contribution to psychoanalytic theory is her revision and clarification of the defense mechanisms. q฀ q฀Some other ego psychologists: H.Hartmann, E. Kris, R. Loewenstein, q

฀

G. Blanck & R. Blanck, E. Er

Questions to ask: q฀What defenses are operative against drives? q฀How effective are they? (Rigidity, flexibility, reliably available or not) q฀How are the affects being defended against? q฀How is relatedness itself being defended against? q฀What tools of adaptation have failed to develop or have developed aberrantly?

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Adaptation mechanisms: q฀tension maintenance q฀the capacity for delay q฀object constancy q฀concern for others q฀the socialisation of urges

PSYCHOLOGY OF OBJECT RELATIONS q฀Outgrowths of psychoanalytic theory that focus more on relationships with the objects (e.g., mother) that satisfy instinctual needs, rather than on the needs themselves. q฀Object in Freud’s theory refers to primarily the mother, and then others who satisfy the child’s needs. q฀Object relations theories focus on interpersonal relationships with such objects. q฀In object relations theories, drive satisfaction is secondary to the establishment of interpersonal relationships. Emphasis is on personal relations rather than on instinctual needs. q฀There is more emphasis on social and environmental factors on personality. q฀The crucial issue in personality development is the child’s ability to grow independent of his mother.

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Melanie Klein (1882-1960): q฀Focused on the intense emotional relationship between infant and mother. q฀Her emphasis was on the first 5-6 months of life. q฀She claimed that babies satisfy their needs through the fantasized mental representations, i.e., images. For example, a hungry baby can hold the image of him sucking the mother’s breast. q฀These fantasies are called inner objects, which, for the baby are considered a...