POLI1003 Final Notes PDF

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THE UNIVERSITY OF HONG KONG Department of Politics and Public Administration POLI1003 Making Sense of Politics 2nd Semester, 2016 2017 Final Review Guide 1. Why is political science best an imperfect Why should we think of political science theories always in probabilistic terms? What is Political S...

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THE UNIVERSITY OF HONG KONG Department of Politics and Public Administration POLI1003 Making Sense of Politics 2nd Semester, 2016 – 2017 Final Review Guide 1. Why is political science “at best an imperfect science”? Why should we think of political science theories always in probabilistic terms? What is Political Science?  Political science is the application of empirical principles to the study of phenomena that are political in nature  Political science is governed by five myths: 1. Studies politics 2. Scientific 3. Possible to study politics separated off from economics, sociology, psychology and history 4. The state in our democratic capitalist society is politically neutral, that is available as a set of institutions and mechanisms to whatever group wins the election 5. Advances the cause of democracy At Best an Imperfect Science  Practical Objections 1. Political behavior is extremely complex 2. Rely on people, who can intentionally mislead researchers 3. Measurement is often subjective 4. Data can be difficult or impossible to attain 5. Data can be “ugly” or misleading 

Philosophical Objections 1. Reasoning behind political behavior cannot be measured objectively 2. “Facts” of political phenomena are constructed or conditioned by observers’ perceptions, experiences and opinions 3. “Essentially, all models are wrong, but some are useful” (George E. P. Box) Models are wrong because they are the simplifications of reality. Political processes rely on people – and people do all sorts of unpredictable things. But they can be quite useful to help us explain, predict and understand the reality and human behaviours.

Always think of political science theories in probabilistic terms 

moderate critique Page 1 of 16

a. "What should I study?" and "How should I study it?". b. No real what discoveries it has made using these procedures. c. bias he finds in most studies done by political scientists, i. Why, he asks, treat government as trying to serve the common good rather than the exploitative interests of an elite? Or view political socialization as education rather than as mystification and intellectual impairment? Or treat citizen apathy mainly as a source of political stability rather than an opportunity for elite manipulation of the masses? And he finds many other examples—as we we all can—of political science proving more useful to those wishing to retain the status quo than to those who want to change it.  Fabricated (cannot be proved) a.  the radical critique (calculations involved)  Marxist critique Improvement  The discipline has changed over time. a.Traditional approach: Empirical approach: b. Period between 1930 and 1960—primarily described the practice of government c.Followed early survey work in the 1950s—led to the widespread application of statistical methods—explanatory research  Empirical research a.Hypothesis Oriented b. Theory Driven (Hopefully)

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2. What is modernity? Do you generally agree with modernization theory’s assumptions and predictions about economic and political development across the world? If you do agree, give your reasons. If you do not agree, what is wrong with the modernization theory? What is Modernity?  Questioning and rejection of tradition  Individualism: value independence and self-reliance; individual interests > group  Freedom: exercise of human rights and civil liberties under legal protection  Equality (before the law): all humans are subject to same laws of justice regardless of characteristics (e.g. ethnicity, race, gender, religion), without privilege, discrimination and bias  Movement from feudalism/agrarianism to capitalism and market economy (agrarianism: value rural society as superior to urban society; capitalism: economic system based on private ownership and profit maximisation)  Industrialisation: transform from an agrarian society into an industrial one  Urbanisation: moving human activities from rural areas to urban areas  Secularization: transformation of a society from close identification and affiliation with religious values and institutions toward nonreligious values and secular institutions Origins of Development in the Modern Age  Pursuit of science and technology  The Age of Discovery (end of 15th century – 18th century): globalization  Colonialism (16th century – mid-20th century) Four Kinds of Gaps Dividing Poor and Rich Countries 1. Economic Gap 2. Social Gap 3. Political Gap 4. Digital Gap Four Categories of Countries Level of Development Advanced Developed Countries/Regions Newly or Moderately Industrialized Countries/Regions (NICs)

Per Capita GDP (Gross Domestic Products)

Examples

Above USD20,000

UK, Germany, Italy, Japan, Hong Kong, USA

Roughly USD10,000 – 20,000

Israel, Greece, South Korea, Taiwan

Middle Income Countries

Roughly USD3,000 – 10,000

Low Income Countries

Below USD3,000 Page 3 of 16

Brazil, Mainland China, India, Malaysia, Mexico Bangladesh, Bolivia, Cambodia, Kenya

Classical Modernization Theory Origin: Max Weber: The Protestant Ethic and the Spirit of Capitalism 1. Individualism 2. Salvation through worldly achievement (Making Money!) 3. Frugality (save and investment) R.R. Rostow: Five Stages of Modernization 1. Traditional Society 2. Pre-conditions for Take-off 3. Take-off 4. Drive to Maturity 5. Age of High Mass Consumption Alex Inkeles: Modernization of Man Traditional Man/Woman Religious; Belief in magic Rural; Uneducated Group-oriented (family, clan, village…) Particularistic

Modern Man/Woman Secular; belief in Science Urban; Educated Individualistic Universalistic (open to new people and idea)

Daniel Lerner: Modernization is a Society-wide Lifestyle Change Characteristics of the Modernization School 1. More a “syndrome” or package of changes than a causal theory (industrialization, urbanization, education, secularization, democratization) 2. Unidirectional (or single) path for all countries: modernization = westernization 3. Relatively Optimistic: poor countries (non-western countries) are expected to develop quickly and be like the West Problems with the Modernization School 1. Cultural Differences 2. Historical Timing: earlier developers vs. late comers 3. The International Context: international pressure 4. Overly optimistic 5. Alternative developmental path? 6. Is modernization really westernization? 1. How do we define “modern” and “traditional”? 2. Are traditional values really obstacles to development? Page 4 of 16

3.

Will modernization completely replace tradition?

Critics of the Classical Modernization School Alexander Gerschenkron: Late Developers (Timing is Important) 1. Multiple Paths to Modernization 2. Late Developers 3. Implications for Political System The Effects of Relative Backwardness  Late developers face different opportunities and constraints  Greater pressure to develop quickly  Ability to borrow technologies from Early Developers Late Developers likely to follow different path to industrialization 1. More rapid/emphasis on heavy industry 2. Bank-led or state-led, rather than market-led  England Early developer (late 18th century) Early, slow, market-led modernization  Germany Later developer (mid-19th century) Bank-led industrialization  Russia Very late developer (late 19th century) State-led industrialization 3. Likely to be accompanied by illiberal ideologies and authoritarian regimes (Asian Values) Dependency Theory (International System is Important) 1. Core-periphery 2. International Capitalism 3. Policy Implications No way for late developers to develop, unless you do it alone! 1. The empirical puzzle: most countries failed to industrialize in the 20th century 2. Dependency Theory 1. Capitalism as an international system 2. Core vs. Periphery Center

dominates trade, controls the most advanced technologies, and has high levels Page 5 of 16

Semi-periphery Periphery

of productivity within diversified economies exploits peripheral regions but are themselves exploited and dominated by center regions has underdeveloped or narrowly specialized economies with low levels of productivity

Policy Implications 1. The Western model of development should not be copied 2. Link to global economy will DO HARM to the developing countries; to develop, you have to DO IT ALONE 3. Dependent countries (periphery countries) should pursue SELF-RELIANCE policies 1. Import Substitution 2. Isolation 3. Domestic market and consumption “Asian Values”: Modernization CAN Take Place under Different Cultures  Proponents of "Asian values", who tend to support Asian-style authoritarian governments, claim these values are more appropriate for the region than Western democracy with its emphasis on individual freedoms 1. Preference for social harmony 2. Concern with socio-economic prosperity and the collective well-being of the community 3. Loyalty and respect towards figures of authority 4. Preference for collectivism and communitarianism  Examples: The Four Asian Tigers (Hong Kong, Singapore, South Korea and Taiwan) 1. 2. 3. 4.

Modernization can take place under non-Protestant cultures Modernization can take a different path than the Western way Economic development can take place within the existing world economy Economic development might need a strong government rather than a free market

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3. How to define the “state”? What’s the role of the state in development? To what extent and under what circumstances state intervention can be justified? What is the State?  The state is a set of permanent administrative, legal, bureaucratic and coercive systems with a monopoly over the legitimate use of force in a given territory  Most long term (State > Regime > Government)  Hong Kong: can be described as a hybrid state (independent police, currency)  Taiwan: not regarded by UN but by 21 countries – defect Roles of the State  Collect taxes  Regulate national economy  Maintain public order  Solve conflicts  Provide common defense  Provide essential public services (such as education, post service…)  Social welfare Intervention 1. Size/Scope: degree of state intervention in economy and society 2. Capacity/Strength: ability of state to actually carry out tasks Ideal States 1. Limited and Effective  US, Chile 2. Limited and Weak  Much of post-colonial Africa  Extreme cases: collapsed state (or failed state) Political or economic system has become so weak that the government is no longer in control 3. Big and Effective  Developmental state (Japan, Korea)  Social Democratic Welfare State (Sweden, Finland) 4. Big but Ineffective  Much of Latin America in the 1970s and 1980s  Extreme Cases: predatory states Autocratic rule, accompanied by institutional decay, failure or deficit, and corruption, and with adverse economic and developmental consequences Arguments FOR Government Intervention Page 7 of 16

1. Too Much Inequality/Greater Equality: redistribute income and wealth to improve equality of opportunity and equality of outcome  Diminishing Marginal Returns to Income The law of diminishing returns states that as income increases, there is a diminishing marginal utility. For example, your third sports car gives only small increase in total utility. However, if you are unemployed, a 10% increase in income gives a substantial boost in living standards and quality of life. Therefore, redistributing income can lead to a net welfare gain for society. Income redistribution can be justified from a utilitarian perspective.  Fairness In a free market, inequality can be created through privilege and monopoly power. Without government intervention, firms can exploit monopoly power to pay low wages to workers and charge high prices to consumers. Government intervention can regulate monopolies and promote competition. Therefore government intervention can promote greater equality of income, which is perceived as fairer.  Inherited Wealth Wealth and income and opportunity may depend on being born in the right family. A wealth tax can reduce the wealth of the richest and this revenue can be used to spend on education for those who are born in poor circumstances.  Rawls Social Contract Rawls’ social contract stated that the ideal society is one where you would be happy to be born in any situation, not knowing where you would end up. Using this social contract, most people would not choose to be born in a free market because the rewards are concentrated in the hands of minority of the population. If people had no idea where they would be born, they would be more likely to choose a society with a degree of government intervention and redistribution. 2. Market Failure Markets fail to take into account externalities and are likely to under-produce public/merit goods. For example, governments can subsidise or provide goods with positive externalities 3. Macroeconomic Intervention Intervention to overcome prolonged recessions and reduce unemployment Arguments AGAINST Government Intervention 1. Governments liable to make the wrong decisions Influenced by political pressure groups, they spend on inefficient projects which lead to inefficient outcome 2. Personal Freedom Government intervention is taking away individuals decision on how to spend and act. Economic intervention, takes some personal freedom away 3. Market is best at deciding how and when to produce

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4. What is structuralism? What is voluntarism? Why is institutionalism the “middle ground” between the two? Use examples to explain. Structuralism vs. Voluntarism  The central question of the debate between structuralism vs. voluntarism is: do political leaders really make a difference?  Primary Mission of Political Science is identify causal relationship. And as political scientists, we use one Independent Variable (IV) or several IVs to explain Dependent Variable (DV). The distinction between structuralism and voluntarism lies in the different kinds of IVs they tend to use to explain political event What is Structuralism?  Structuralists usually use social, economic and cultural conditions/factors to explain political event  Structuralism has gradually become too deterministic  Social, economic and cultural approaches are all structuralist in that they stress the causal importance of deeply entrenched social, economic or cultural conditions  Role of individual leaders is minimized  In other words, structuralists don’t leave a lot of room for human initiatives or human agency  According to structuralist, whenever the structural conditions meet a certain standard, certain political events will take place – people just play no role in this  Political leaders don’t cause a revolution. So long certain structural conditions are there, a revolution will take place no matter who is the leader  Examples: Even a George Washington or a Mao Zedong cannot do much to change a society’s culture, class structure, or level of development What is Voluntarism?  Voluntarists argue against all these structuralist approaches – decisions and abilities of individual leaders are often crucial in shaping the course of history  For voluntarists, it is always political leadership that best explains political outcomes  Examples: The American Revolution Founding Fathers of the United States The Chinese Communist Revolution Mao Zedong Gorbachev, the last Secretary General of the Collapse of the Soviet Union Communist Party who ordered the dissolution of the Soviet Union Democratization of South Africa Nelson Mandela  Individual leaders, human agency and human initiative are the factors we should use to explain political events instead of long term economic trends or deeply rooted cultural factors  Pure voluntarism has found the important role played by political leadership Page 9 of 16

 

But the role played by human beings are very hard to be examined in a scientific way If you believe in the role of human being, you can hardly get any theory, because everyone is different and people do all sorts of unpredictable things. The pure voluntarist approach is very hard to be generalized as theory

What is Institutionalism?  From the 1990s, a new theoretical approach began to enter into political science and has now dominated the field and has become the foundation for modern social sciences. This approach is called Institutionalism  The origin of institutionalism is that political scientists found pure structuralism and pure voluntarism (leadership centered approach) have their benefits but also have serious problems  From the 1990s, political scientists started to pay attention to another group of entities that have enormous impact on politics  Kinds of constitution play important roles in politics. In the developing world, countries have a parliamentary system like that of Britain are more likely to have stable democracy  Formal political organizations that are created on the ground of rules and laws play important roles in shaping political world: the parliament, the court, or the army  Example: In 2001, a terrorist organization hiding in Afghanistan planned and implemented the 911. Organizations like this one are playing an increasingly important role in shaping world politics  “Institution” is described as all these things that help shaping the political society: constitutions, laws, army, courts, terrorist organizations, and many more  Institutionalism uses political institution as the IV to explain various political events  Basically, we use institutions to explain politics  Examples: Independent Variable (IV) Dependent Variable (DV) Difference in Constitutional Structure Countries to have stable democracy or not Different Nature of the Army Countries to have revolution or not Economic Development Different Court System (some say countries with a British legal system are more likely to have better development) Why is Institutionalism the “Middle Ground” between Structuralism and Voluntarism?  Institutions are not strictly structural. They are made by people under certain structural conditions. The collective choice of the people shape the origins and transformations of institution  Institutions are also not strictly based on leadership. It is collectively made, historically dependent and thus individual political leaders cannot easily change them  Use institutions to explain politics can best combine the benefits of a pure structuralist approach and a pure voluntarist approach Page 10 of 16



So institution is the middle ground between structuralism and voluntarism

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5. Why do people rebel? Types of Rebel 1. Protest: Presentation of claims concerning specific issue(s) 2. Resistances (Revolts): Refusal to obey rules (either non-violent or violent) 3. Revolution: Rapid and violent change of a country’s political, social and economic systems (change of regime) Why Do People Rebel – Different Explanations 1. Class Conflicts – Karl Marx 2. Relative Deprivation and Mass Mentality – Ted Gurr  Promoting social just, social equality and social welfare  Contribute to state building  Providing strong state-ideology for post-revolutionary nations  Providing organizational bases for social mobilization… 3. Resource Mobilization  Material, Organization, Network 4. Cultural Explanations (from god)

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6. What’s civil society? What is social capital? How might contemporary civil societies be prevented from subverting instead of reinforcing democratic orders? What is Civil Society?  Civil society is the “third sector” of society, distinct from government and business  Aggregate of non-governmental organizations and institutions that manifest interests and will of citizens  Individuals and organizations in a society which are independent of the government What is Social Capital?  An instantiated informal norm that promotes cooperation between two or more individuals  The norms that constitute social capital can range from a norm of rec...