Potential Essay Questions Answered on Exam 2 PDF

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Potential Essays on exam 2 covering chapters 6-9...

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Ch. 6 1. Compare and contrast classical and operant conditioning. Classical and operant conditioning are two methods to learning that both involve direct experience. Classical conditioning is a process that associates a preexisting stimulus with a previously neutral stimulus. The unconditioned stimulus, something that a subject does not have to learn to respond to, naturally leads to an unconditioned response. During the initial learning process, the neutral stimulus draws out a conditioned response, causing the neutral stimulus to become a conditioned stimulus. In contrast, operant conditioning involves associating behavior to consequences. The desired behavior is brought about by either reinforcement or punishment. If there is a desire to see a decrease in behavior, then punishment is used. If there is a desire to see an increase in a behavior, reinforcement is employed. Positive reinforcement involves giving something to the subject to encourage behavior, while negative reinforcement involves withdrawing something to encourage behavior. An additional way that classical and operant conditioning are different is the stimulus timing. In classical conditioning, the stimulus is presented immediately before the response. In operant conditioning, the stimulus, in the form of either reinforcement or punishment, is presented soon after the response or behavior. Classical and operant conditioning are two distinct types of effective associative learning techniques.

2. Discuss Watson’s Little Albert experiment using Pavlovian terminology. Dr. John Watson, a behaviorist, believed in the idea that behavior should be studied through observing subjects’ responses to conditioned stimulus. He conducted an experiment with a baby named Albert. In this study, he presented Little Albert with multiple neutral, unfeared stimulus, including a white rat. Then, when Little Albert would touch the white rat, Watson would hit a hammer against a metal bar. The loud noise, which acted as the unconditioned stimulus, scared Little Albert and produced a reflexive fear, or an unconditioned response. After doing this repeatedly, Little Albert became scared of the white rat alone because he associated the white rat with the loud sound. The previously neutral stimulus, the white rat, eventually become a conditioned stimulus leading to a conditioned response of fear. Quickly after, Albert also became scared of other furry objects. Through this experiment, Watson demonstrated how emotions and responses can become conditioned responses.

3. Identify the 4 types of Partial Reinforcement scheduling and provide an example of each. There are four types of partial reinforcement scheduling used to produce a desired behavior. One is fixed variable, which is reinforcement that is given at predictable time intervals. This produces a moderate response rate with pauses after the reinforcement. An example is an employee receiving a weekly salary. A second type of partial reinforcement is variable interval, which is reinforcement given at unpredictable time intervals. This produces moderate yet consistent responses. An example is an employee receiving a bonus at work whenever he/she passes an inspection. A third type is a fixed ratio, which is reinforcement delivered after an unpredictable number of responses. This results in a great response rate with pauses after reinforcement. An example is an employee receiving commission based pay for something such as a car salesman. The fourth type of reinforcement is variable ratio, which is reinforcement given after an unpredictable number of responses. This produces a great and consistent response rate. An example is gambling because a gambler does not how long it will take to win money.

Ch. 7

1. Describe Piaget’s concepts of Assimilation and Accommodation. Provide an example of each. Jean Piaget was a developmental psychologist who introduced the idea that children develop schemata. Schemata are mental models that help organize information. When people, particularly children, gain knowledge, they modify their schemata in two different ways. One way is assimilation, which is when people compare new information to what they already know. An example is a child who has a pet dog sees a different type dog in public that he has never seen before and recognizes it as a dog. He has assimilated this new type of dog into his schema for dogs. The second way is accommodation, which is when people alter their schemata because of new information. For example, if a child sees a lamb and thinks it is a dog because he thinks all furry animals with four legs are dogs, his mother will tell him it is a sheep. The child must change his schema for dogs and make a new one for sheep.

2.

Identify and describe 3 problem solving strategies discussed in the textbook Problem-solving strategies are plans of action used to find solutions to problems. One method is the trial and error method. This is trying different solutions until the correct solution is found. While this method can consume a significant amount of time and leads to a great amount of error, it is commonly used. A second strategy is an algorithm which is a step-by-step formula used to solve a problem. It can include highly detailed instructions and is the most accurate and least prone to error out of all the strategies, however it must be followed exactly to be effective. A third strategy is the heuristic method, which is creating a general framework or mental shortcuts to solve a problem. A person often is inclined to use heuristics if he/she must deal with a great amount of information, there is limited time, the decision is unimportant, or if there is a lack of information needed to make the decision.

3. Discuss how IQ tests such as Stanford Binet and the Wechsler test assess intelligence. There are different types of IQ tests used to assess intelligence. One test is the Stanford Binet test. This test was developed by a researcher Alfred Binet when the French government asked him to create a test to determine which children might be the most challenged by school. Later on, Stanford professor Louis Terman refined Binet’s test by first standardizing how the test was given and then giving it to children of different ages, determining an average score for each age. As the test was administered to a large population with varying scores, the resulting scores graphed to be a bell curve. The Wechsler Test was developed by psychologist David Wechsler who combined the subtests of several different intelligence tests, incorporating the verbal and nonverbal components of the tests, to produce a new one. Today, there are three different tests that can be attributed to Wechsler: the Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale-fourth edition (WAIS-IV), the Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children (WISC-V), and the Wechsler Preschool and Primary Scale of Intelligence—IV (WPPSI-IV). The WISC-V consists of 14 subtests that test Verbal Comprehension, Visual Spatial, Fluid Reasoning, Working Memory, and Processing Speed to produce an IQ score. Ch. 8 1. Describe the Baddeley-Hitch memory model The Baddeley-Hitch memory model involves short term memory. Because memories consists of different forms, such as written, spoken, or visual-spatial, memories are stored in three different short term systems, which are a visuospatial sketchpad, an episodic buffer, and a phonological loop. This model states that the central executive part of memory oversees the passage of information to and from the three short term systems. The phonological loop is associated with affecting speech related information, while the visuospatial sketchpad is

associated with affecting visual images. It directs the information to the visuospatial and the phonological loop. The visuospatial stores and reads data in a visual or spatial way. The phonological loop is composed of two parts: the phonological store and the articulatory control process. The phonological store deals with spoken material and holds spoken words for one to two seconds. The articulatory control process is connected to the production of speech and stores verbal data from the phonological store. 2. Describe Elizabeth Loftus’ research pertaining to Misinformation Elizabeth Loftus is a cognitive psychologist who has conducted research on memory. She developed the misinformation effect paradigm, which states that if a person is exposed to inaccurate information, they may remember the actual event incorrectly. Loftus tested her theory with John Palmer with an experiment involving 45 college students. Loftus showed each participant the same car accident but altered the phrasing of the followup question. She asked them to estimate the speed of the cars when they either smashed, collided, bumped, hit, or made contact. The word usage directly correlated to how fast they participants estimated the speed. The harsher the verb used, the faster the estimated speed was. A week later, the participants were asked if they remembered seeing broken glass at the scene, even though there was actually no broken glass. The students who estimated higher speeds were more likely to falsely remember there to be broken glass. Loftus has argued the idea that memories can be manipulated and molded due to the power of suggestion.

3. Describe the research supporting possible causes of Alzheimer’s from the HBO Alzheimer’s Documentary. In 1906, Alois Alzheimer, a German neuropathologist, examined with a microscope staining techniques on dead brains. This allowed him to see amyloid plaques and neurofibrillary tangles. He called this disease Alzheimer’s disease, however for decades it was believed that Alzheimer’s was early onset dementia. Decades later, the National Institute of Aging finally started doing heavy research and realized that most cases of what was deemed dementia was actually Alzheimer’s. In the 1980s, scientists were able to isolate the main building block or peptide that makes up one of the core features, amyloid plaques. This led to scientists identifying the parent protein that produces amyloid, which is the amyloid precursor protein (APP). Scientists soon discovered that plaques were comprised of the beta-amyloid protein, which led to the discovery that the tau protein made up the tangles in Alzheimer’s. Now scientists understand the processes of amyloid plaques and how they damage nerve cells. They also understand the very early early aspects of what happens inside the cells that leads to neurofibrillary tangles in the brain and Alzheimer’s. In 1991, the first gene mutation that causes Alzheimer’s in an inherited fashion in a particular family was reported and it happened to be in the amyloid beta gene. Within ten years, the discovery of an abnormal protein amyloid beta in excessive amount in an Alzheimer’s brain led to the gene producing it and then the gene when mutated causing the disease. The discovery of the amyloid mutations showed that the amyloid is one of the main causes of Alzheimer’s. Researchers put the mutated gene that causes Alzheimer’s in a mouse. The mice developed a form of Alzheimer’s and amyloid plaques. The use of animal models for Alzheimer’s has increased drug development. In the 2000s, scientists began advances in drug development and brain imaging. Because scientists were able to understand what causes Alzheimer’s, they have created a number of approaches to treat the disease.

Ch. 9 1. Compare and Contrast the Developmental theories of Frued and Erikson Psychologists Sigmund Freud and Erik Erikson each created their own developmental theories. Freud theorized that there are four stages of human development. The first is the oral stage, which is from ages 0 to 1. Babies in this stage seek to put everything in their mouth. If there is too much or too little oral development, they can develop an oral fixation.

Erikson proposed eight different stages in the psychosocial stage. He suggested that the most important factor in human development is who you are around. The developmental psychology is a lifelong process, going from womb to tomb. Each stage builds on the previous stage. For example, if a person develops strong trust in the first stage, he/she can develop good autonomy in stage two. 2. Describe the 3 stages of Prenatal Development There are three stages of prenatal development. The first is the germinal stage. This includes conception in the fallopian tube. The second stage is the embryonic stage. The third and final stage is the fetal stage. It is during this stage that if the mother drinks a certain amount of alcohol, the baby can develop fetal alcohol syndrome.

3. Discuss Ainsworth’s contribution to the Attachment Theory Psychologist Mary Ainsworth contributed to the Attachment Theory. In an experiment, called the Strange Situation, she recognized distinctive differences in babies depending on how they were raised and cared for. In the Strange Situation, she observed how a small child responded to reunion. There were four different responses. The first was the secure attachment, which is the ideal response where Ch. 10 1. Describe the factors contributing to self-efficacy according to Bandura. Psychologist Albert Bandura contributed the idea of self-efficacy, which is a person’s perception of his/her own abilities. A high self-efficacy is caused by several factors. One is a high mastery experiences. Another is having good social modeling from people such as parents or caregivers. Social persuasion also plays a part. If a person thinks so strongly that something is going to happen, their behavior will adjust to ensure that it happens. This can be positive or negative. The physiological state also affects self-efficacy. If a person is tired, they will feel as if they are not going to do well so their self confidence will be lowered. If they are energized, their self confidence will be higher.

2. Discuss the criterion for Gender dysphoria according to the DSM 5. According to the DSM 5, there is a set criteria for gender dysphoria. Gender dysphoria is the depressed state of a person that is forced to conform to his/her biological gender. It often includes suicidal thoughts or actions. 3. Compare and contrast 2 theories of emotion covered in the textbook. There are multiple theories of emotions. The James-Lange theory states that a stimulus leads to a physiological response, which then leads to the experience of the physiological

response. This experience causes an experience of emotion. The problem with this theory is that similar or even identical physiological responses can trigger a variety of emotions....