PSY 101 Robert Hutton - Psych 101 PDF

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Chapter 7 - Memory (failure at any point results in memory deficits) How does info get into memory? Encoding ● Translating into a usable code ● Affected by attention ○ Divided attention causes decreases in memory performance ○ selection / filter theory - early selection model illustrates ○ Capacity models view mental energy as finite, simultaneous tasks interfere selective attention ■ Levels of processing theory : memory involves more than just storage ■ Elaboration in any type of processing improves memory performance ● Attention ○ Performance suffers when attention is divided ○ Multitasking is a myth ● Selection Theory/ Filter theory ○ Early selection model ■ Incoming information ● Channel 1 Filter ● Channel 2 Pre-awareness awareness ○ Dichotic listening experiments ■ Participants hear 2 messages at the same time. One in the left and one in the right ■ Can tell: ● Male v female ● Language or nonlanguage ■ Can’t tell ● What was said ● The meaning ● Same v diferent language ● Problem for selection theory ○ Cocktail party effects: salient information is perceived through irrelevant stimulus ■ Hearing your name being heard during a loud environment ● Capacity models ○ Tries to account for divided attention ○ Attention as mental energy that can be allocated as necessary ○ Mental energy is finite ○ Simultaneous task interfere ● Automatic processes ○ A learned task carried out smoothly, effortlessly, and with little conscious awareness ■ E.g walking, talking, eating ○ Even automatic processes interfere with other tasks

○ Say the color game Levels of processing (craik) ○ Shallow Structural ending: emphasizes physical structures ○ Intermediate Phonemic encoding: emphasizing what a word sounds like ○ Deep Semantic encoding: emphasizes the meaning of the word ■ The deeper you process, the more you will remember ■ Memory involves more than just storage ● Encoding part 2 ○ Elaboration of any type of processing improves memory performance ■ Explaining on information ■ Creating explaimes ■ Comparing and connecting to other information ■ Organizing ■ Memory devices Storage ● Multi-store model of memory (atkinson and shiffrin model) ● Sensory memory ○ Hypothesized that every sense has a sensory memory ○ Sensory memory holds incoming information very briefly ○ Very rudimentary processing occurs during this storage ○ Prevents log-jam of information ● Icon - sensory memory for vision ○ Lasts about ½ second ○ Rudimentary processing: color, location, basic categorization (e.g. letters v. numbers) ● Echo - sensory memory for audition ○ Lasts 2-3 seconds ○ Rudimentary processing: language vs nonlanguage, direction ● Loss of information ○ Information decays if left for too long in sensory memory ○ Information can be interfered with by new information ■ Icon: Masking - new information wipes out old info in the icon ■ Echo: Suffix effect - new information covers up the end of the old echo ■ important information is moved onto the next level of storage ● Short term memory (STM) ○ Other terms: ■ Temporary memory ■ Working memory ■ Consciousness ○ VPTEDCBGZ ○ SABRXQMOY ■ The first set of letters sound similar to each other - it is harder to recall ■ Suggests we store information in STM according to auditory code (usually) ●

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Primarily uses auditory code Lasts 25-30 second ■ Can use rehearsal to expand duration ○ Capacity ■ 7 + or - 2 pieces of information ○ 4925 1375 - experiment ○ chunking: combining information into meaningful units ● Long term memory (LTM) ○ Also called “permanent memory” ○ duration ■ Forever (theoretically) ○ Capacity ■ Unlimited (theoretically) ○ Code ■ Often as semantic code ■ You recall the gist, but not the exact words ■ Can be visual, tactile, olfactory, gustatory, auditory, or kinesthetic Retrieval - recovering information from storage ● Organization ○ Categorical clustering ■ Items in the same category tend to be recalled together, especially over multiple trials ● Recall is better for organized material than for unorganized ● LTM is generally organized semantically ○ Encode things according to meaning ● Serial position curve ○ People will recall the beginning and end of the list better than the middle ■ Primacy effect : good recall for the beginning of the list ■ Recency effect: good recall for the end of the list ● Retrieval ○ Reconstructing memories ■ Elizabeth Loftus - misinformation effect ● Framing of memory can affect details ● Forgetting ○ Retention : the proportion of material retained (remembered) ○ Recognition: vs. recall ■ Understanding vs. being able to say it back ● Why we forget ○ Ineffective encoding ○ Decay ■ Memory traces fade with time ○ Interferencing ■ Competing information interferes with recall ● Proactive interference: old info interferes with retrieval of new

information Retroactive interference: new info interferes with retrieval of old information ○ Retrieval failure Types of memory ● declarative : factual information ● Nondeclarative : action skills conditioned responses, emotional memories ○ semantic : general knowledge, not tied to the time when the information was learned ○ Episodic: chronologically coded experiences Anatomy of memory, amensias, repressed memories (evidence for and against)bold faced text ●

How is info maintained in memory? ● Storage ○ Maintaining information ○ Multi-store model of memory How is information pulled back out of memory? ● retrieval ○ Recovering information for storage Cognition. Language acquisition ● Behaviorist theories ○ B.F. Skinner ○ Children learn language the same way they learn everything else: through imitation, reinforcement, and conditioning ● Nativist theories ○ Noam Chomsky ○ Children learn the rules for language, not specific verbal responses ○ Humans are born with a language acquisition device - an innate mechanism or process ○ Behaviorists - social exchange plays a critical role in language developments but fails to adequately explain acquisition of linguists rules ○ Nativists - humans are biologically equipped for language Problem solving ● Types of problems ○ Inducing structure: person must discover the relations among parts of the problem - there is a pattern ○ Arrangement: person much arrange parts in a way that satisfies some criterion ○ Transformation: a person must carry out a sequence of transformation to reach a goal - that fox boat chicken grain problem ● Common barriers ○ Irrelevant information - you are the bus driver ○ Functional fixedness - matchbox, corkboard and candle example

○ Mental set ○ Unnecessary constraints - assumed rules ● Approaches to problem solving ○ Trial and error ■ Insufficient ○ Forming subgoals ○ Search for analogies ○ Change the representation ● Heuristics ○ Heuristic: a guiding principle or “rule of thumb” ● Availability heuristic ○ Basing the estimated probability of an event on the ease with which relevant instances come to mind ■ Estimating the divoce rate by thinking of how many of your friends’ parents are divorced ○ Representative heuristic ■ Basing the estimated probability of an event on how similar it is to the typical prototype of that event ● Ignoring base rates ○ E.g criminal underestimate likelihood of being caught ○ many overestimate their driving ability ● Conjunction ○ Estimating that the odds of two uncertain events happening together are greater than the odds of either event happening alone ○ E.g. assuming that a power hungry ambitious an articulate college professor is also a politician Intelligence ● What is intelligence ○ Elusive, hard to define, hard to measure ○ The ability to learn from experience, solve problems, and use knowledge to adapt to new experiences ○ Problems:

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Hard to quantify Can’t easily assess certain facets, event though it seems multifaceted

History ○ 1904 : alfred Binet asked to devise a test to identify mentally subnormal children ○ 1905: the cabinet and Simon create first useful test of general mental ability

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binet-Simon test scored on “mental level” or “mental age” (typical

performance of a child of the given age 1916: test expanded by researchers at Stanford -> Stanford-Binet Intelligence scale, intelligence quotient IQ = Mental age/ chronological age X 100

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Modern intelligence testing

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Based on normal distribution

Psychometric structure of intelligence ○ Variance exists at 3 levels

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General cognitive ability (g) Domains of cognitive functioning (group factors) Test-specific variation

Little variance at the domain level

■ Worry that g might vary between batteries ■ Small g = general intelligence ■ Research supports existence of g and consistency ●

Modern IQ tests ○ Reliability

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Validity

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Yes and no Great for academic assessment, questionable in a broader sense

Sum: good predictor of academic success, job performance, SES, health

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Exceptional! R= 0.90

Could be partly because test-taking skills are important for all of those

Components of Intelligence ○ Sternberg et al ○ Verbal intelligence ○ Practical intelligence ○ Social intelligence Genetic influences ○ Twin studies

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Heritability ratio ●

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Estimate of the proportion of trait variability in a population that is determined by variations in genetic inheritance Environmental influence ○ Adoption studies ○ Environmental deprivation and enrichment

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Cumulative deprivation hypothesis ●

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Children who are deprived of a learning conducive environment will show a decrease in IQ ● Circumstance conductive to learning lead to benefits in IQ Generational changes

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Biological correlates of Intelligence ○ Brain size

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IQ and head size r=.15 IQ and brain size: r = .40

Neutral bases of intelligence

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Flynn effect

Gray matter vs. white matter IQ correlated with both, more with gray

Cognitive processes and intelligence ○ Triarchic theory of intelligence

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Analytical intelligence ● ●

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Creative intelligence ●

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Abstract reasoning, evaluation, judgement Assessed by traditional IQ tests Ability to generate new ideas, to be inventive

Practical intelligence ● ●

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Ability to deal with everyday life problems Tacit knowledge: what one needs to know to work in an environment ○ All three can be measured reliably ○ All three are relatively independent ○ Assessment of all 3 increases predictive power Expanding the human intelligences ○ Gardner’s Eight Intelligences

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logical / mathmetical Linguistic Musical Spatial Kinesthetic Interpersonal Intrapersonal Natural

Overview Intelligence is a broad concept Intelligence deals with our

Intelligence can be broken into relevant independent specific domains Animal cognition (crash course) Preface ● Consensus is difficult ● Beware of anthropomorphism ● Beware of ambitious conclusion Language and communication ● Animal communication ○ Information sent from sender and acted on by the perceiver ○ Information sent from sender to receiver; true communication involves benefit of both ○ Intentional ○ Requires sender and receiver to have similar rerensetnal models Memory ● Episodic memory ○ What happened to me ○ Where did it happen ○ When did it happen ○ Argued to be processed by distinct system in humans ○ Knowing vs. remembering ○ Do animals revisit events from their past ● Episodic-like memory research design using scrub jays ○ When cues are used self-awareness , self-recognition ● Metacognition: thinking about thinking, knowing about knowing Self recognition ● Chimpanzees recognize their own delayed self-image ● Mirror test of self-recognition ○ Nonhuman primates capable of mirror self-recognition ○ Chimpanzees ○ Orangutan ○ Lowland gorillas ○ Bonobos ● Crows ● Parrots Theory of mind Social learning ● Social learning: learning about other agents or the inanimate world that is influenced by observation of, or interaction with, another individual or its products ● Studies more behavioral than cognitive ○ Adaptive function vs. processes ● Types of social learning in animals ○ Studied for more than a century ■ Primarily focused on evolution, adaptive function of social behavior

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Found wide range of cases Found in: ● Primates ● Birds ● Rodents ● Reptiles ● Fish ● Insects

Intelligence ● Functional fixedness / mental set in nonhumans ○ Behavioral flexibility ■ Applies to the physical and non-social domains ■ Measure by innovation, inhibition, tool use social learning, and play ■ Good cross pscieifc measure by cognitive ability ○ Multi access box paradigm Chapter 5 Consciousness What is it? How does it change? How does one SPELL IT. #MOOD ● consciousness : the awareness of internal and external stimuli ○ Includes: ■ Awareness of external events ■ Awareness of internal sensations ■ Awareness of selfhood ■ Awareness of thought ● Levels of awareness ○ Conscious vs unconscious ○ Awareness is NOT all or nothing ○ Some stimuli are processed even during states of lower consciousness What does it look like? ● Consciousness is the result of neural activity ● Electroencephalography (EEG) a device that monitors the electrical activity of the brain over time by means of recording electrodes attached to the surface of the scalp ○ Output: “brain waves”, varying in amplitude ● EEG pattern and consciousness ● EEG pattern Frequency (cps) State of consciousness Beta 13 - 24 Normal waking thought, alert problem solving Alpha 8-12 deep relaxation, blank mind, medication Theta 4-7 light sleep Delta...