PSY101 Chapter 1 Notes - Karen Reeder PDF

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Karen Reeder...

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Chapter 1 The Science of Psychology

Chapter Preview: -Definition -Approaches -Scientific Method -Research -Ethical Research

Psychology How many of you have an acquaintance who is a psychologist? Those of you who do not personally know a psychologist still have an idea of what psychology is. Where did your idea come from?

Psychology = The scientific study of behavior and mental process. Scientific – systematic methods Behavior – what can be directly observed Mental Process – thoughts, feelings, motives

Science of Psychology Critical Thinking Curiosity Skepticism Objectivity When we’re thinking about behavior and mental processes, why would we want our thinking to be “critical”?

PSYCHOLOGY IN HISTORICAL PERSPECTIVE Philosophical debate on link between mind and body Wilhelm Wundt explored structures of consciousness. •Structuralism •Introspection William James explored the purposes of the mind and behavior. •Functionalism •Adaptation to the environment •Darwin's theory of evolution: Natural selection

BIOLOGICAL APPROACH Body, especially Brain & Nervous System Neuroscience •Scientific study of nervous system •structure, function, development, genetics biochemistry •Physical basis in brain for behavior/thought

BEHAVIORAL APPROACH Environmental Determinants of Observable Behavior Reject Explanations Referencing Thought Notable Behaviorists •John Watson •B.F. Skinner PSYCHODYNAMIC APPROACH Unconscious conflicts Childhood experiences with Parents Sexual Instinct Freud Psychoanalysis

HUMANISTIC APPROACH Positive Human Qualities/Potential Free Will / Personal Choice

COGNITIVE APPROACH Mental processes involved in knowing and thinking Memory, planning, problem solving, perceiving Mind as active, not passive

EVOLUTIONARY APPROACH Explanations of Human Behavior: •adaptation •reproduction •natural selection Notable Evolutionary Psychologist •David Buss

SOCIOCULTURAL APPROACH Social and Cultural Environments Differences •between ethnic and cultural groups •within and across countries

AREAS OF SPECIALIZATION Behavioral Neuroscience Sensation and Perception Learning Cognitive Developmental

Motivation & Emotion Personality Social Clinical & Counselling Health Industrial/ Organizational Community School & Educational Environmental Psychology of Women Forensic Sport Cross-Cultural

SCIENTIFIC METHOD Science is a method. It’s not what you study, but how you study it. SCIENTIFIC METHOD Observe Hypothesize Test Conclusions Evaluate SCIENTIFIC METHOD Observe Step 1 Observe some phenomenon •curiosity •variables •theory

•falsifiable SCIENTIFIC METHOD Hypothesize Step 2 Formulate hypotheses and predictions •testable prediction •derived from theory SCIENTIFIC METHOD Test Step 3 Test through empirical research •operational definition of variables •analyze data using statistical procedures SCIENTIFIC METHOD Conclusions Step 4 Draw conclusions •replication of results •reliability SCIENTIFIC METHOD Evaluate Step 5 Evaluate the theory •change the theory? •peer review and publication

DESCRIPTIVE RESEARCH Goal: Describing a Phenomenon •observation

•surveys and interviews •case studies DESCRIPTIVE RESEARCH Descriptive research does not answer questions about why things are the way they are. CORRELATIONAL RESEARCH Goal: Identify Relationships: How two variables change together •correlation coefficient: r−1.00 ≤ r ≤ 1.00 •strength of relationship: magnitude •direction of relationship: + / − CORRELATION COEFFICIENTS: STRENGTH OF RELATIONSHIP --1.00 [Perfect/Very Strong] --.75 [Strong] --.50 [Moderate] --.25 [Weak] --0 [None]

SCATTER PLOTS Positive Correlation The longer the lecture, the more yawns

Factors vary in same direction SCATTER PLOTS Negative Correlations The longer the lecture, the lower student attentiveness

Factors vary in opposite direction CORRELATIONAND CAUSATION Correlation does not equal causation. Why is parental harshness correlated with child rebellion? •Harsh parents drive their kids to rebellion (?) •Rebellious kids drive their parents to harshness (?)

•In stressed-out families both parents & kids are at worst (?) •Ornery families are genetically disposed to such behavior (?) •Etc. (?) Any combination of the above may be true or false. A correlation does not settle why behavior occurs. Third variable problem (consider stress & genetics above) CORRELATIONAND CAUSATION Correlation does not equal causation. Why is a happy mood correlated with sociability? •Being with others lifts our spirits (?) •Happy people seek out company (?) •Demands of working on own are oppressive (?) •Neurotransmitters that underlie happiness also promote sociability (?) •Etc. (?) Any combination of above may be true or false. A correlation does not settle why behavior occurs. EXPERIMENTAL RESEARCH Goal: Determine Causation •random assignment to groups Experimental Group •hypothesized cause is manipulated Independent Variable Control Group •treated equally, except no manipulation Observe / Measure any Effect •resulting difference between groups Dependent Variable EXPERIMENTAL RESEARCH Goal: Determine Causation

Experimental Group  Control Group

Within-Participant Design: Participant serves as own control group. Participant in all groups Quasi-Experimental Design: Groups not assigned randomly.

Observe / Measure any Effect

EXPERIMENTAL RESEARCH Goal: Determine Causation Experiments are one of the few research designs that allow you to directly test why something happens, that is, to test for cause and effect. VALIDITY External Validity •Representative of real world issues? •Do results generalize to the real world? VALIDITY External Validity •Representative of real world issues? •Do results generalize to the real world? VALIDITY Internal Validity •Are dependent variable changes the result of independent variable manipulation? •Bias? Logical errors? BIAS AND EXPECTATIONS Demand Characteristics •Experimenter Bias Research Participant Bias •Placebo Effect

Double-blind Experiment RESEARCH SAMPLE Population •entire group about whom conclusion is to be drawn Sample •portion of population actually observed RESEARCH SAMPLE Population •Entire group about whom conclusion is to be drawn Representative Sample •characteristics similar to population •opposite of “biased sample” RESEARCH SAMPLE Population •entire group about whom conclusion is to be drawn Random Sample •Each individual in population has equal chance of being selected. RESEARCH SAMPLE Population •entire group about whom conclusion is to be drawn Random Sample •Each individual in population has equal chance of being selected. RESEARCH SETTINGS “Artificial” World – Laboratory Setting •controlled setting Real” World - Natural Setting •naturalistic observation What are the advantages and disadvantages of each setting?

RESEARCH ETHICS Research participants have rights! APA Guidelines •informed consent •confidentiality •debriefing •deception Institutional Review Board (IRB) ANIMAL RESEARCH IN PSYCHOLOGY Animal research has benefited humans. Used by 5% of researchers Rats and mice used 90% of time Standards of care in animal research: •housing •feeding •psychological and physical well being A WISE CONSUMER...IS SKEPTICAL YET OPEN-MINDED! Cautions: •Avoid overgeneralizing results. •Exercise caution in applying group trends to individual experience. •Look for converging evidence. •Question causal inferences. •Consider the source....