Psy101 Notes - Summary Psychology PDF

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CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION TO PSYCHOLOGY 1 What The scientific study Four goals of psychology: 1. Description 2. Explanation 3. Prediction 4. Control of is behavior and Psychology? mental processes. Psychology Then: The History of Psychology 1 Early Psychology Psychology as a new science 1879, Germany: ...

Description

CHAPTER 1 – INTRODUCTION TO PSYCHOLOGY 1.1

What • The scientific study • Four goals of psychology: 1. Description 2. Explanation 3. Prediction 4. Control

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is behavior

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mental

Psychology? processes.

Psychology Then: The History of Psychology 1.2 Early Psychology • Psychology as a new science - 1879, Germany: Wilhelm Wundt’s psychology laboratory - Technique of objective introspection. • Structuralism - Edward Titchener brought to America but it died out in the early 20th century. - A theory of consciousness by Wundt and Titchener • Functionalism - William James proposed a counter point of view - Stressed the way the mind allows us to adapt - Functionalism influenced the modern fields: educational psychology, evolutionary psychology, and industrial/organizational psychology. • A number of women and members of minorities also contributed to psychology despite the prevailing cultural hindrances during their times 1.3 Other Early Approaches • Gestalt Psychology Wertheimer studied sensation and perception • Psychoanalysis - Freud proposed that the unconscious mind controls much of our conscious behavior • Behaviorism - Watson focused only on the study of observable stimuli and responses - Watson and Rayner demonstrated that a phobia could be learned - Mary Cover Jones demonstrated that this phobia could be counter-conditioned Psychology Now: Modern Perspectives 1.4 Modern Perspectives - Modern Freudians changed the emphasis to a kind of neo-Freudianism - Skinner’s operant conditioning of voluntary behavior became a major force in the 20th century; he introduced the concept of Reinforcement to behaviorism. • Humanism - Focuses on free will and the human potential for growth - Maslow and Rogers - A reaction to the deterministic nature of behaviorism and psychoanalysis • Cognitive Psychology

- The study of learning, memory, language, and problem solving - Includes the field of cognitive neuroscience • Biopsychology - emerged as the study of the biological bases of behavior such as: - hormones, heredity, chemicals in the nervous system, structural defects in the brain, and the effects of physical diseases. • Evolutionary Perspective - To look at the way the mind works and why it works as it does - Behavior is seen as having an adaptive or survival value Psychological Professionals and Areas of Specialization 1.5 The Field of Psychology and Professions • Psychologists - Have academic degrees - Can do counseling and teaching - Can research and may specialize in areas of psychology • Different areas of specialization in psychology: - Clinical, counseling, developmental, social, and personality as areas of work or study • Psychiatrists - Are medical doctors who provide diagnosis and therapy for persons with mental disorders. - Psychiatric social workers have special training in the influences of the environment 1.6 Psychology as a Science • The Scientific Method - A way to determine facts and control the possibilities of error and bias when observing behavior. - The five steps are: 1. Perceiving the Question 2. Forming a Hypothesis 3. Testing the Hypothesis 4. Drawing Conclusions 5. Reporting the Results 1.7 Naturalistic and Laboratory • Naturalistic observations - Watching animals or people in their natural environments - Disadvantage: lack of control • Laboratory observations - Watching animals or people in a controlled situation such as a laboratory - Disadvantage: artificial situation

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1.8 Studies and • Case studies - Detailed investigations of one subject - Information gained from case studies cannot be applied to other cases • Surveys

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Asking standardized questions of large groups of people that represent a sample of the population of interest. People in surveys may lie or remember incorrectly.

1.9 Correlational Technique and Relationships • Correlation - A statistical technique that allows researchers to discover and predict relationships between variables of interest. - Positive correlations exist when increases in one variable are matched by increases in the other variable - Negative correlations exist when increases in one variable are matched by decreases in the other variable - Correlations cannot prove cause-and-effect relationships. 1.10 Steps in Designing Experiments • Experiments - Tightly controlled manipulations of variables - Helps determine cause-and-effect relationships • Independent Variable - Is deliberately manipulated by the experimenter - To see if related changes occur in the behavior or responses of the participants and is given to the experimental group. • Dependent Variable - Is the measured responses or behavior of the participants. • Control Group - Receives either a placebo treatment or nothing • Random assignment of participants to experimental groups - helps to control for individual differences both within and between the groups that might otherwise interfere with the experiment’s outcome. • *Quasi-experiment* - Similar to experiments but don’t include the random assignment of participants 1.11 Problem: Placebo and Experimenter Effects • Single-blind Studies - Subjects don’t know if they are in the experimental or control groups • Double-blind Studies - Neither the experimenters nor the subjects know this information - Researchers instruct experimenters without telling them what is being tested 1.12 Elements of a Real-world Experiment • An experiment studying the effect of negative stereotypes on test performance of athletes ( Jameson et al., 2007) found that exposure to negative stereotypes prior to taking a test resulted in poorer performance by athletes than the performance of athletes whose exposure came after the test. Ethics of Psychological Research

1.13 Ethical Concerns Regarding Research with People and Animals • Ethical Guidelines for Doing Research with Human Beings - Protection of rights and well-being of participants - Informed consent of participants - Justification when deception is used - The right of participants to withdraw at any time - Protection of participants from physical or psychological harm - Confidentiality of personal information - Debriefing of participants at the end of the study - Researchers are also responsible for correcting any undesirable consequences that may result from the study. • Animals in psychological research are useful models because… - They are easier to control than humans - Have simpler behavior - Can be used in ways that are not permissible with humans Applying Psychology to Everyday Life: Critical Thinking 1.14 Principles of Critical Thinking and Use in Everyday Life • Critical thinking - The ability to make reasoned judgments. - Four basic criteria of critical thinking are… - That there are few concepts that do not need to be tested - Evidence can vary in quality - Claims by experts and authorities do not automatically make something true - Keeping an open mind is important

CHAPTER 2 – BIOLOGICAL PERSPECTIVE 2.1 Neurons and Nerves • Neurons - Parts: - Dendrites - Branch-like - Receives messages from other cells - Soma - Cell body that contains organelles like the nucleus - Axon - Carry messages along to the terminals - Myelin Sheath - Protects and insulates axon - Helps speed up action potential - Axon Terminals / Synaptic Knobs - Communicates to other cells through neurotransmitters • Glial Cells: - Metabolic and physical support to nerve cells - Produces Myelin - Oligodendrocytes - Found in the Central Nervous System - Schwann Cells - Found in the Peripheral Nervous System - Can self-repair damage • Neural Impulse: - Builds electrostatic pressure at rest phase - Neurons have semi-permeable membranes - Negative potassium ions inside - Positive sodium ions outside - Action Potential: firing impulse - Electric charge reversal - All-or-none fashion 2.2 Synapses and Neurotransmitters • Synapse - Goes along axon through the synaptic vesicles then out to terminals - Neurotransmitters cross the synapse and carry messages to the receptor sites of the receiving neuron - 2 types: Inhibitory and Excitatory synapses • Neurotransmitters - Affected by 2 types of chemicals: - Antagonist - Reduces or blocks certain neurotransmitters - Agonist - Enhances certain neurotransmitters - Examples: - Acetylcholine (ACh)

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- Excitatory or inhibitory; - Arousal, attention, memory, and controls muscle contractions Norepinephrine (NE) - Mainly excitatory; - Arousal and mood Dopamine (DA) - Excitatory or inhibitory; - Control of movement and sensations of pleasure Serotonin (5-HT) - Excitatory or inhibitory; - Sleep, mood, anxiety, and appetite Gaba-aminobutyric acid (GABA) - Major inhibitory neurotransmitter; - Sleep and inhibits movement Glutamate - Major excitatory neurotransmitter; - Learning, memory formation, nervous system development, and synaptic plasticity Endorphins - Inhibitory neural regulators; - Pain relief

2.3-2.4 Overview of the Nervous System • Nervous System - Central Nervous System (CNS) - Brain - Interprets information received - Issues orders to organs - Spinal Cord - Pathway from brain to PNS - Contains the reflex arc - Contains afferent, efferent and interneurons - Peripheral Nervous System (PNS) - Autonomic Nervous System - Involuntary and automatic functions - Regulates glands, organs, heart rate, blood pressure, digestion, dilation of blood vessels and pupils, etc. - Parasympathetic Division - Maintains normal function; energy efficient - Sympathetic Division - Fight-or-flight reaction to stress - Somatic Nervous System - Voluntary functions - Skeletal muscle movement - Sensory System (afferent) - Messages from senses to CNS - Motor System (efferent) - Messages from CNS to muscles and glands

2.5 Endocrine Glands - Secretes hormones in the bloodstream that affect other organs • Pituitary Gland - Master gland - Located underneath the hypothalamus - Secretes oxytocin for milk production, etc. - Secretes vasopressin as an antidiuretic - Produces growth hormones in puberty • Pineal Gland - Produces melatonin - Sleep-wake cycle and other biological rhythms • Thyroid - Hormones for growth and metabolism - Secretes thyroxine for growth • Pancreas - Regulates blood sugar level - Secretes insulin to reduce^ - Secretes glucagon to increase^ - Diabetes and hypoglycemia disorders involve the pancreas • Gonads - Regulates hormones for sexual growth, activity and reproduction - Testes - Testosterone - Ovaries - Estrogen - Progesterone • Adrenal Glands - On top of each kidney - Produces 30 different corticoids (steroid-type hormones) - Includes cortisol which is produced in stressful situations and releases glucose to the blood and energy from fat - Regulates salt intake, stress and sexual development 2.6 Examining the Brain* • Lesioning Studies - Destruction of some parts of the brain to study its effect - not allowed on humans • Brain Stimulation - Less destructive than above - Invasive: - Deep Brain Stimulation (DBS) - Non-invasive: - Transcranial Magnetic Stimulation (TMS) - Repetitive… (rTMS) - Transcranial Direct Current Stimulation (tDCS) • Mapping Structure - Computed Tomography (CT)

- Computerized X-ray scans Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) - Uses magnetic fields, radio pulses, computer - More detailed look • Mapping Function - Electroencephalogram (EEG) - Records electrical activity in the brain - Uses scalp electrodes and computer - Magnetoencephalogram (MEG) - Similar to the above - Allows for direct identification of areas of brain activity - Positron Emission Tomography (PET) - Uses radioactive glucose as tracers that show up in scans - The glucose in blood flow is concentrated at active regions - Single Photon Emission Computed Tomography (SPECT) - Uses more obtainable tracers - Functional Magnetic Resonance Imaging (fMRI) - Records oxygen levels of blood circulating in the brain - More accurate than PET - Real-time version… (rt-fMRI) *not discussed in class -

The Structures of the Brain 2.7 Hindbrain • Medulla - Very bottom of the brain and at the top of the spinal cord - Controls life-sustaining functions like breathing and swallowing - Left-right nerves begin crossover here • Pons - Above the medulla, bridges upper and lower parts of the brain - Influences sleep, dreaming, arousal and left-right coordination • Reticular Formation - Runs through the medulla and the pons - Controls level of attention and arousal • Cerebellum - At the base and back of the brain - Coordinates fine, rapid motor movement, learned reflexes, posture and muscle tone; - May also have some cognitive and emotional functions 2.8 Limbic System • Thalamus - Relay station for sensory information* to the appropriate regions of the cortex - *Except smell, which has its own pathway from the olfactory bulb to the brain • Hypothalamus - Controls hunger, thirst, sexual behavior, sleeping and waking, and emotions - Also controls the pituitary gland • Hippocampus

- Curved structure within each temporal lobe - Forms long-term declarative memories and stores memory of the locations of objects • Amygdala - Controls fear responses and memory of fearful stimuli • Dopamine Centers - Ventral tegmental area - Ventral pallidum - Nucleus accumbens 2.9 Cortex - The outer covering of the cerebrum - Corticalization increases cortical area and brain complexity - Has two cerebral hemispheres connected by the Corpus Callosum • Occipital lobes - Back and base of each hemisphere - Primary visual cortex: processes visual information from the eyes - Visual association cortex: identifies and makes sense of visual information • Parietal lobes - Top and back of the cortex - The Somatosensory Cortex runs down its front and is for: - Sense of touch - Temperature - Body position • Temporal lobes - Primary auditory area: processes auditory information from the ears - Auditory association area: interprets - Also involved in understanding language • Frontal lobes - Contain the motor cortex which controls voluntary muscles - Where higher mental functions occur like: - Planning - Language - Complex decision making - Orbitofrontal Cortex: obsessive compulsive behaviors, anger 2.10 Association Areas of the Cortex - Found in all lobes but particularly in the frontal lobes - Help make sense of sensory information and that of the lower brain areas • Broca’s Area - In the left frontal lobe - Responsible for fluent, understandable speech - Broca’s Aphasia: Damage to the area leading to inability to speak fluently • Wernicke’s Area - In the left temporal lobe - Responsible for understanding language and meaningful speech - Wernicke’s Aphasia: Damage to the area leading to inability to understand and produce meaningful language

2.11 Left and Right Hemispheres - Split-brain patients were studied - Corpus callosum is severed to correct epilepsy - Information to the left can be verbalized, but right only info cannot • Left Side - Processes information sequentially - Controls the following: - Language - Writing - Logical thought - Analysis - Mathematical abilities - Can speak • Right Side - Processes information globally - Controls the following: - Emotional expression - Spatial perception - Recognition (faces, patterns, melodies, emotions) - Cannot speak 2.12 Attention-Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD)* - Diagnosed in children - May persist to adulthood - Multiple possible causes: - Genetics - Environmental - Several differences in brain structure and function *not discussed in class

CHAPTER 5 – LEARNING 5.1 Definition of Learning ● Relatively permanent change in behavior brought about by experience or practice ● Different from maturation, which is genetically controlled. Classical Conditioning 5.2 Elements and Characteristics of Classical Conditioning ● Ivan Pavlov discovered one stimulus can, through pairing with another, come to produce a similar response. ● The Unconditioned Stimulus (UCS) ○ Stimulus that is naturally occurring and produces the innate, or involuntary unconditioned response (UCR) ○ Unconditioned: meaning not learned ● The Conditioned Stimulus (CS) ○ Begins as a neutral stimulus (NS) then paired with the UCS. ○ Eventually elicits an involuntary and automatic behavior on its own. ○ The response is called the “conditioned response” (CR) ○ Both stimulus and response are learned. ● The NS and UCS must be paired several times. ● CS must precede the UCS by only a few seconds. ● Other important aspects: ○ Stimulus Generalization ■ Tendency to respond to a stimulus that’s similar to the CS ○ Stimulus Discrimination ■ Tendency to stop making generalized response to similar stimulus because the similar stimulus is never paired with the UCS ○ Extinction ■ Disappearance/weakening of a CS following the absence of the UCS ○ Spontaneous Recovery ■ Reappearance of a CS even after extinction has occurred ○ Higher-order Conditioning ■ Occurs when a strong CS is paired with a NS, turning the NS into a secondary CS 5.3 Conditioned Emotional Response ● Learned Phobia ○ Watson demonstrated a phobia could be learned by exposing a baby to a white rat and a loud noise, producing a conditioned fear of the rat. ● Conditioned Taste Aversion ○ Occurs when an organism becomes nauseated after eating a certain food. ● Some CR are more easily learned because of biological preparedness. ● Stimulus Substitution ○ Pavlov: The NS substituted for the UCS through association over time. ● The Cognitive Perspective ○ Asserts that the CS provides some information or expectancy about the coming of the UCS for conditioning to occur

Operant Conditioning 5.4 How Operant Conditioning Occurs • The Law of Effect: ● Developed by Edward Thorndike ● A response followed by a pleasurable consequence will likely be repeated but… ● ...a response followed by an unpleasant consequence will unlikely be repeated. • Learning of Voluntary Responses: “Operant Conditioning” ● Named by Burrhus Frederic Skinner ● Voluntary responses are what we use to operate in the world around us. 5.5 Reinforcement ● Developed by B. F. Skinner ● Process of strengthening a response by following it with a reward, ● Primary Reinforcer ○ Satisfies a basic, natural drive ○ (e.g. food or water) ● Secondary Reinforcer ○ Something that becomes reinforcing only after being paired with a primary reinforcer. ● Positive Reinforcement ○ Response is followed by the presentation of a pleasurable stimulus. ● Negative Reinforcement ○ Response is followed by the removal of an unpleasant stimulus. ● Shaping ○ Reinforcement of successive approximations to some final goal ○ Allows behavior to be molded from a simple behavior that’s already present 5.6 Schedules of Reinforcement • Continuous Reinforcement ● Occurs when each and every correct response is followed by a reinforcer • Partial Reinforcement ● Only some correct responses are followed by reinforcement ● Much more resistant to extinction (called the partial reinforcement effect) • Fixed Interval ● At least one correct response must be made within a set interval of time to obtain reinforcement. • Variable Interval ● Reinforcement follows the first correct response made after an interval of time that changes for each reinforcement opportunity. • Fixed Ratio ● A certain number of responses is required before reinforcement is given. • Variable Ratio ● A varying number of responses is required to obtain reinforcement. 5.7 Punishment ● Is any following stimulus that makes the response less likely to happen again.

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Positive Punishment (punishment by application) ○ Response is followed by the application of an unpleasant stimulus ○ (e.g. spanking) Negative Punishment (punishment by removal) ○ Response is followed by the removal of some pleasurable stimulus ○ (e.g. taking away a child’s toy)

5.8 Some Problems with Using Punishment • Disadvantages ● A person who uses aggressive punishment acts as a model for aggressive behavior. ● Normally has only a temporary effect on behavior. ● Encourages avoidance of punishment and not the undesired behavior itself. • Ways to Make Punishment More Effective ● Meted out immediately after the ...