Chapter 11 notes Final - Summary Developmental Psychology PDF

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Download Chapter 11 notes Final - Summary Developmental Psychology PDF

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Psychology 211 Chapter 11: Physical Development in Middle Childhood World Wide Variations in Body Size -

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Growth norms (age related averages for height and weight) must be applied cautiously, especially in countries with high immigration rates and many ethnic minorities. o Hereditary and environment are involved when it comes to body growth o Long/lean children usually grow up in hot tropical regions and short/stocky ones in cold areas o Taller children usually develop in countries with better food resources and where infectious diseases are largely controlled o When families migrate into developed countries from developing countries their children grow taller; and take on a longer-legged body shape Secular trends in physical growth - changes in body size from one generation to the next o Specifically seen in industrialized nations o Australia, Canada, Japan, New Zealand, USA and most European countries see a trend where children are taller and heavier than their parents and grandparents were as children o Secular gain; shows up in childhood and adolescence and declines as mature body size is reached – larger body size is due to faster rate in physical development o Improved health and nutrition are responsible for secular gain o However, for low income children secular gain is smaller – and as socioeconomic situation improves in nations secular gain increases o Secular decrease; decreased in body size due to widespread poverty, famine and disease o Secular weight has increased while secular height has slowed in recent decades Skeletal growth- during middle childhood bones lengthen and broaden, ligaments are not yet firmly attached to bones with increased muscle strength this gives children extreme flexibility o Increased physical activity increases growing pains; this happens until the body can accommodate increased physical activity and as muscles adapt to the enlarging skeleton o By age 6 throughout 12 children lose their 20 primary teeth, girls losing them slightly before boys – the first to go are the upper and lower front teeth. The permanent teeth seem much too large for the mandible and maxilla until the facial bones grow o Malocclusion; a condition in which the upper and lower teeth do not meet properly, this causes problems with chewing and biting. It can be caused by thumb sucking or crowding of the permanent teeth. Brain Development – the weight of the brain increases by 10% in middle childhood and adolescence o FMRI shows researchers two types of brain tissues; grey matter and white matter o Grey matter; neurons and supportive material o White matter; largely myelinated nerve fibres o White matter rises in the prefrontal cortex (consciousness, impulse control, integration of information and strategic thinking), the parietal (spatial abilities)

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and in the corpus callosum (leading to more efficient communication between the two cortical hemisphere) steadily throughout childhood and adolescence Stimulate neurons increase in synaptic connections and their neural fibres become more elaborate and myelinated  Grey matter peaks in middle childhood and then declines as synaptic pruning (reduction of unused synapses) and death surround neurons proceeds  Pruning and additional reorganization and selection of brain circuits leads to more optimized functioning of specific brain regions  Attention  Inhibition  Working memory capacity  Organized and flexible thinking Additional brain development likely takes place at the neurotransmitter level; overtime neurons become selective and only respond to specific chemical messages When neurotransmitters are not balanced the child might experiences development problems – inattention, overactivity, emotional disturbances ad epilepsy Brain development may change because of hormone development; at 7/8 there is an increase in androgens (male sex hormones) this occurs in both sexes. Androgens leads to boy's higher activity level and physical aggression, but it also affects brain organization

Common Health Problems 

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Nutrition; The percentage of children who eat meals with their families drops sharply between ages 9 and 14. o Family dinnertimes have waned in general over the past two decades. Yet eating an evening meal with parents leads to a diet higher in fruits, vegetables, grains, and milk products and lower in soft drinks and fast foods o Children report that they feel better and more focused when they eat healthy foods, and feel sluggish after junk foods o In a longitudinal study, children who ate sugary, junk food by the age of 8 had a lower IQ o Insufficient dietary iron and folate are related to poorer concentration and metal test performance o Food familiarity and food presence are linked; children best like foods they have eaten in the REPEATEDLY past o FIRST, growth stunted children show greater stress – higher heart rate and levels of cortisol o SECOND, deficient diets alter the production of neurotransmitters – can disrupt psychological function o Malnutrition that happens in childhood into school years leads to permanent physical and mental damage Overweight and Obesity; greater than 20% increase over healthy weight based on BMI - a ratio of weight to height over the 85th percentile is overweight and over 95th is obese o Today 32% of US children are overweight and more than half (17%) are extremely obese

o Smaller increases have occurred in other industrialized nations, including Finland, the Netherlands, Norway and Sweden o Urbanization leads to sedentary life style and higher in meats in developing countries which in turn can lead to a rise in obesity. o In china where a decade ago obesity was non-existent, today 20 percent of urban children are overweight, and 8 percent are obese o A few young people who are persistently overweight in adolescence attain a normal weight in adulthood o High cholesterol, high blood pressure, respiratory abnormalities, insulin resistance and inflammatory reactions o Adult obesity can lead to childhood obesity and this causes serious health implications that can lead to blindness, leg amputation etc. o Heredity only accounts for a tendency to gain weight o Parents usually use high-sugar foods to reinforce behaviour, leading children to attach great value to treats o Insufficient sleep; children who got less nightly sleep were more likely to be overweight five years later (2,000 U.S. 3-12-year-olds) o Consequence of obesity; since physical attractiveness is a powerful predictor of social acceptance, both children and adults who are obese are stereotyped into being lazy, sloppy, dirty, ugly, stupid etc.  Emotional, social and school difficulties are reported – teasing, rejection, consequent low self-esteem  Because unhappiness and overeating is a cycle the child remains overweight which can lead to defiance, aggression, severe depression and suicidal thoughts  MAJOR CONSEQUNECES IN ADULTHOOD; less likely to receive financial aid for college, be rented apartments, find mates and be offered jobs – mistreatment by professionals, family etc. o Treating obesity; childhood obesity is hard to treat because it is a family disorder.  Fewer than 20 percent of children get help, because one-fourth of overweight parents ever tell their children they have a problem  Although many try to slim down in adolescence, they use crash diets which lead to physical stress, discomfort and fatigue. - then to protect itself the body burns calories slower and becomes resistant to future weight loss.  Treatments need to focus on diet and lifestyle familial changes children need to feel a personal control over exercising, allowing them to be rewarded for their decision to reduce inactivity  Let’s Move Campaign Goals; increased education on healthy eating and physical activity, greater access to healthy foods, laws mandating labels that show nutritional content, improve government supported breakfasts and lunches, expand schools activities and recreation centres.

Factor Heredity

Description Likely to have at least one obese parent, and identical twin or more likely than fraternal twins to

Socioeconomic status Early growth patter Family eating habits

Responsiveness to food cues Physical activity Television viewing Early malnutrition 

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share disorders Obesity is more common in low-SES families Infants who gain weight faster are at greater risk of obesity, parents promote unhealthy eating Parents using high calorie foods as rewards, anxiously overfeed or control intake the children is more prone to obesity External cues, smell, taste, sight, time of day, foodrelated word, rather than hunger Obese children are less physically active Children who spend much of their time watching TV are more likely to be obese Early, severe malnutrition results in growth stunting which increases the risk of late obesity

Vision and Hearing o Myopia; near-sightedness is the most common middle childhood problem o By the end of the school year it affects 25% of children and the rate rises to 60% by early adulthood o Heredity plays a role; those with one myopic parent are twice at risk and those with two and two to five times the risk o Asian populations > Caucasian populations o Early trauma can induce myopia – low birth weight result in an immaturity of visual structures, slower eye-growth and a greater incidence of eye disease o In diverse cultures, the more time children spend reading. Writing and using the computer the more likely they are to be myopic o During middle childhood, the eustachian tube (tube from inner ear to the throat) becomes longer, narrower and more slanted prevent fluid and bacteria from traveling so easily from the mouth to the ear o Otis media; (middle ear infection) common in infancy and early childhood becomes less frequent o Still about 3 to 4 percent of school age children and as many as 20 percent of low-income children develop some hearing loss as a result of repeated infection Bedwetting o Nocturnal enuresis; or bedwetting during the night can affect children at all ages o In overwhelming majority of cases the problem has biological roots – heredity is a mjor contribution o Parents with a history of bedwetting are far more likely to have a child with chronic bedwetting o Most common its caused by the inability of muscular responses that inhibit urination or by hormonal imbalances that permits too much urine to accumulate during the night, some children also have a difficulty awakening to a full bladder o Treatment; synthetic hormone called desmopressin which reduces the amount of urine produced, the best treatment is a urine alarm that wakes the child up once there is any sort of wetness – success rates are about 55-75 percent Illness

o Children experience a much higher rate of illness during the first two years of elementary school rather than later, because of their exposure to sick children and an immune system that is still developing o Asthma ; bronchial tubes are highly sensitive, in response to a variety is stimuli o Pollution in inner city areas, obesity, stressful home lives and lack of access to good health cause a greater risk for children to get asthma o About 2% of children have severe chronic illnesses like; sickle cell anaemia, cystic fibrosis, diabetes, arthritis, cancer and AIDS o Physical complications of the illness alienates the child and disrupts their daily life. o As the condition worsens children who are severely chronically ill suffer from self-esteem issues, and may even attempt suicide – familial intervention is important o Things parents can do  Health education  Home visits by professionals  School accommodation  Disease-specific summer camps  Parent and peer support groups Motor Development & Play 

Gross-Motor Development; Skill Running

Gait variations

Vertical jump Precision jumping and hopping

Throwing

Catching Kicking

Batting

Dribbling

Standing broad jump

Developmental Change Running speed increases from 12 ft per second at age 6 to 18 ft per second at age 12 Skipping improves, sideways stepping appears around age 6 and becomes more fluid and continuous Height jumped increases from 4 inches at age 6 to 12 inches at age 12 By age 7 children can jump and hop from square to square which improves until 9 and then levels off Throwing speed, distance and accuracy increases for both sexes, but much more for boys than girls Ability to catch small balls thrown over great distances Kicking speed and accuracy improves, with boys considerable ahead of girls Batting motions become more effective with age, increasing in speed and accuracy and involving the entire body Style of hand dribbling gradually changes, from awkward slapping of the ball to continuous, relaxed, even stroking Distance jumped increases from 3

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feet at age 6 to over 5 feet at age 12 Fine Motor Development o By age 6 most children can print the alphabet, their first and last names and the number 1 to 10 with reasonable clarity o They usually master upper case letter first because they use their entire arm to write instead of their fingers o Children can accurately copy many two-dimensional shapes, and they integrate them into their drawings, they can also identify some depth cues o Before age 8 children have trouble accurately copying three-dimensional forms o Around 9-10, the third dimension is clear through overlapping objects, diagonal placement and converging lines o School age children depict objects in considerable detail but also relate them to one another as part of an organized whole Individual Differences in Motor Skills o Show marked differences in motor-capacities; both heredity and environment are factors o Body build: taller more muscular children excel at many motor tasks and children whose parents encourage physical exercise tend to enjoy it more and to be more skilled o Family income effects children access to lessons needed to develop abilities in areas such as ballet, tennis, gymnastics and instrumental music o Sex differences in motor skills that appear in preschool years extend to middle childhood, and in some instances, become more pronounced. o Girls have an edge in fine motor skills and in gross motor skills that depend on balance and agility o But boys outperform girls on all other skills listen in the table above, especially throwing and kicking. o School age boys’ genetic advantage in muscle mass is not largely enough to account for their gross-motor superiority o Rather, the social environment plays a larger role – parents hold higher expectations for boys’ athletic performance, and children readily absorb these messages o Parents and the school curriculum should encourage girls more to participate in sports and hold them at the same regard as their male counterparts. Games with Rules o Games with rules become common, gains in perspective – in particular, the ability to understand the roles of several players in the game o This permits a transition to rule-oriented games – which contribute to emotional and social development o Children invented games promote different styles of cooperating, competing, winning and losing with little personal risks o In their need to organize the game they discover why rules are necessary o Children invented games often show cultural values – in Angola, Africa children imitate social roles in Chicago its more competitive and individualistic Adult-Organized Youth Sports o Girls and ethnic minorities are less likely to participate in sports, which are associated with an increase in self-esteem and social skills

o In some instances, youth sports can overemphasize competition and substitute adult control for children's natural experimentation with rules and strategies o High parental pressure sets the stage for emotional difficulties and early athletic dropout, not elite performance STRATEGY Childrens interests Teach age appropriate skills Emphasize enjoyment Limit the frequency and length of practices Focus on personal and team improvement Discourage unhealthy competition Permit children to contribute to rules and strategies 

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DESCRIPTION Permit children to select from appropriate activities the ones that suit them best Younger than 9 emphasize basic skills and simplified games Permit them to progress on their own Adjust practice to children attention spans Emphasize effort, skill gains and team work Avoid all-star games and championship ceremonies Involve children in decisions aimed at ensuring fair play and teamwork

Shadows of Our Evolutionary Past o Rough-and-tumble play; occasionally wrestling, rolling, hitting and running after one another o It emerges in preschool, peaks in middle childhood and children in many cultures engage in it with peers who they especially like o Resembles social behaviour seen in other young mammals – it's usually mostly seen in boys because of their predisposition (androgen) o Boys rough and tumble largely consists of playful wrestling and hitting whereas girls focus on running and chasing with little physical contact o In our evolutionary past, it may have been important for developing fighting skills – dominance hierarchy; a stable ordering of group members that predict who will win when conflict arrives o Once school children establish their dominance hierarchy hostility is rare o In adolescent rough and tumble there is a link to aggression – eventually hurting their opponent Physical Education o Nearly half of the U.S. elementary and secondary school students do not attend any physical education classes during a typical school week o Fewer than one third of 6 to 17-year olds engage in at least moderate intensity activity for 60 minutes per day, including some vigorous activity on three of those days o School should offer more frequent physical education classes but also change the content of these programs o Programs should emphasize enjoyable, informal games and individual exercise – children of varying skill levels are more likely to sustain physical activity when teaches focus on childs personal progress and contributions to team accomplishment o Physically fit children take great pleasure in their rapidly developing motor skills – which result in sports being a part of their life through adolescents...