PSY107 Exam Notes PDF

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PSY107: Introduction to PsychologyStudy Unit 1: Chapter 1 (Introduction to Psychology)Definition of Psychology It is the scientific study of the behaviour of individuals and their mental processes. Covers both internal mental processes & external observable behaviours Based on objective, ver...

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PSY107: Introduction to Psychology Study Unit 1: Chapter 1 (Introduction to Psychology) Definition of Psychology -

It is the scientific study of the behaviour of individuals and their mental processes. Covers both internal mental processes & external observable behaviours Based on objective, verifiable, scientific evidence

Psychology Broad field of study

Psychiatry Medical Specialty

Psychoanalysis Believes that behaviour is influenced by their unconscious drives (ID, Ego, SuperEgo) - Sigmund Freud

Holds a Ph.D. (Doctor of Philosophy)

Holds an MD (Doctor of Medicine)

Training emphasised research methods

Training in treatment of mental & behaviour problems

People may utilize a number of defence mechanisms to protect themselves from information contained in the unconscious. Emotional and psychological problems such as depression and anxiety are often rooted in conflicts between the conscious and unconscious mind Bringing information from the unconscious into consciousness can lead to catharsis and allow people to deal with the issue

Advanced study in specialisation

Licensed to prescribe medicine

Psychologist – 3 Main Category 1. Experimental psychologist (research) a. Smallest of the group

Commonly used in therapy

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b. Some work for private research institutes or within individual industry or universities 2. Teachers of psychologists 3. Applied psychologist (use the knowledge developed by experimental psychologists to solve human problems) Sports

Engineering School

Rehabilitation

Clinical / Counselling Industrial & Organisational

Forensic Environmental

Geropsychologist

help athletes improve their performance by planning effective practice sessions, enhancing motivation and control emotions under pressure also to help overcome any psychological barriers using psychological principals to make products, systems, and workplaces safer focused on teaching & learning and manage any issues that may influence school performance such as family conflict, or behaviour problems focuses on treating individuals dealing with disabilities and problems that make living normal lives difficult help people work through difficult choices in life (most popular choice) Personnel selection, talent management & tailoring work environment to maximise productivity & moral Provide psychological expertise to legal and judicial system focused on improving human interaction with environment such as city planning to improve sustainability & mental health Helps older adults maintain their physical & mental health

Early ideas that shaped Psychology 1) Charles Darwin o Suggested biological kinship between human and animals o Application of animal biology & Behaviours to humans (Pavlov’s works with dogs) 2) Wilhelm Wundt o Structuralism – Elements of conscious experience that simplifies understanding of the mind

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Psychology devoted to uncover basic structure that make up mind and thought o Introspection – Used by Wundt to study the elements of consciousness – Sensation & perception, memory, attention, emotion, cognition, learning, and language  The process of reporting on one’s own conscious mental experiences 3) William James o Functionalism – should study functions of consciousness.  Psychology that believed mental processes could be understood in terms of their adaptive purpose and function o Mental process has no static structure, continually flowing, changing and interacting with environment o Psychology explains people adapt or fail to adapt to the everyday world outside 4) Gestalt Psychology o Focuses on the whole. o Understand perception was the means to understanding how our brain works o Relied on Introspection Structuralism

Functionalism

Gestalt Psychology (German for whole) Behaviourism

Psychoanalysis

Devoted to uncovering basic structures that make up mind and thought (elements of consciousness; sensation, perception, memory, attention, emotion, cognitive, learning & language) Believed mental processes could best be understood in terms of their adaptive purpose and function *Psy should help people adapt (or fail to adapt) in the world* Interested in how we construct “Perceptual Wholes” Argued psychology should deal solely with observable events Asserted mental disorders arise from conflict in the unconscious mind

Wilhelm Wundt

William James

Hermann Ebbinghaus

John B. Watson

Sigmund Freud

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6 Main Perceptions of Psychology 1) Biological Perspective o The perspective that focuses on searching the causes of behaviour in the functioning of genes, brain and nervous, endocrine systems o Neuroscience – Combination of biology, neurology and other disciplines interested in the brain  The field devoted to understanding how the brain creates thoughts, feelings, motives, consciousness o Evolutionary Psychology – Human behaviour arises from inherited tendencies, and gained a substantial boost from recent surge of genetics research  A relatively new specialty in psychology that sees behaviour and mental processes in terms of genetic adaptataions for survival and reproduction 2) Cognitive Perspective o The perspective that emphasizes cognition (mental activity) such as perception, interpretation, expectation, beliefs, memories o Introspection, Structuralism, Functionalism, Gestalt Psychology 3) Behavioural Perspective o Physical Stimuli from environment and organism’s overt responses o Science of behaviour and the measurable environmental conditions that influence it  The field that sought to make psychology an objective science by focusing only on behaviour 4) Whole person perspective o Take a global view of the person including: o Psychodynamic Psychology – Referring to Freudian and Neo-Freudian Psychology  Clinical approach emphasizing the understanding of mental disorders in terms of unconscious needs, desires, memories and conflict o Humanistic Psychology – Self concept and self esteem influences thoughts, emotions, actions and ultimately potential  Emphasising human ability, growth, potential and free will o Trait & Temperament Psychology – Difference amongst people arise from difference in persistent characteristics and traits  Views behaviour and personality as the product of enduring psychological characteristics 5) Developmental Perspective o Interaction between heredity and the influence of our environment

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Emphasis on nature and nuture on predictable changes that occur across the lifespan o Erik Erikson’s Socioemotional Development 6) Sociocultural Perspective o Study of social influence and how social processes vary from one culture to another  Emphasise on the importance of social interaction, social learning and culture to explain human behaviour

Modern Perspectives of Psychology View of Human Biological Can be further spilt into - Neuroscience - Evolutionary psychology

Cognitive Comes from traditional psy. - Structuralism - Functionalis m - Gestalt Psychology Behavioural

Complex systems that respond to hereditary & environmental influences

Informationprocessing systems (comparable to computers)

We respond to surroundings according to principles of behaviour

What determines Behaviour Neural structures, biochemistry & innate responses to external cues (e.g fight or flight response)

Focus of study Example

Interpretation of experience by means of mental processing *how emotion and motivation influence thought & perception* Stimulus cues, history of reward & punishment

Mental processes including sensation, perception, learning, memory & language

Tracking the brain and chemical changes in depressed patients to provide effective treatment Useful in research and discover how people process a problem and produce solutions

“Laws” connecting our responses to stimulus conditions in

Using behavioural strategies such as classical

Nervous and endocrine systems, Physical traits, genetics

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learning

Whole-Person

We are driven by unconscious motives

the environment (not mental processes) Psychodynamic (Freud) view stresses unconscious conflicts

Counselling & Psychotherapy

Humanistic view focuses on self-concept and need for personal growth

Developmental (also known as parenting style)

Sociocultural (relationships between people)

People undergo predictable patterns of change throughout their lives We are social animals, hence human behaviour must be interpreted in a social context

Trait view focuses on persistent characteristics & dispositions Interaction between heredity & environment (Nature vs Nurture) Culture, social norms, expectations, social learning

Patterns of development and their underlying influences

Often used to monitor growth and pick out any abnormalitie s or delays

Social interaction, Socialisation & Crosscultural differences

Used to explain individual’s behaviour in a group and predict how we can control crowd thinking (in a pandemic)

Goals of Psychology 1. Describe (What) -

conditioning to keep a class of students under control Believes that everyone has the free-will to change & improve. Used in therapy, where you consider the person and encourage them to change

Make Objective & Accurate observations of the subject

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Children prefer to play with the same gender

2. Explain -

How can the observation be explained with insights into human experience, behaviour or findings from previous research They may be more comfortable with a familiarity as compared to the opposite gender

3. Predict -

With the found explanation, predict how likely a certain behaviour would happen again Children are likely to form cliques based on gender in school

4. Control Behaviour -

Alter the conditions to modify undesirable behaviours Create situation where children of different genders are required to interact with each other

Study Unit 1: Chapter 2 (Psychological Research)

Four Steps of Scientific Method 1) Develop a hypothesis o Provide Operational Definitions terms in hypothesis o Determine research method to test hypothesis o State Independent Variable – Manipulated Factor o State Dependent Variable – Observable/Measurable Factor o State Control Group – Placebo / Nothing is given to

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2) Collect objective data o Gathering of information via direct observation o Such data depends on the Independent Variable of 3) Analyse results, accept or reject hypothesis 4) Publish, criticise and replicate the results o In a professional journal, find out if their work can withstand scrutiny and criticism of the scientific community o Replicate results by doing the experiment

Develop a Hypothesis

Gather Objective Data

Analyse the results

Publish, criticize & replicate results

Hypothesis means “little theory” which represents a piece of larger theoretical explanation

Provide operational definitions for all terms, then specify the exact procedures to use in the experiment

Objective data refer to data that are measurable and not dependent on a researcher’s expectations, or personal emotions.

Data is dependent on Independent variable which results in dependable variables

Tables are usually used to collect and present data. This can come in the form of graphs or data table.

A statistical test can show if the results are due to the independent variable or just by chance.

1. Publish experiment with results in journals or book.

2. Wait for critics to scrutinise and criticise the experiment

Experiment can also be presented at a scientific meeting among scientists.

To consider if there was biases involved. And if there were

Independent Variable: The condition that experimenter changes in a controlled environment. Dependent variable: Result that comes out from changing independent variable. An independent variable is the variable that is changed or controlled in a scientific experiment to test the effects on the dependent variable.

A dependent variable is the variable being tested and measured in a scientific experiment.

3. Let critics repeat the experiment, under different conditions. If experiment is repeated with similar results, means the experiment withstood the scientific test. If not, then the hypothesis is proven to fail. This step can be repeated many times.

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factors that weren’t considered.

Psychological Research Methods 1) Experiments o Researcher directly controls all condition 2) Correlational Studies o Determines relationship between 2 variables o When correlation established, possible to use the measurement of one variable to predict the other 3) Survey o Able to generate large data o Quality depends on clarity of questions and honesty of participants 4) Naturalistic Observations o Observation of individuals in natural surrounding o Good for child rearing practices, shopping habits of people o Less controlled due to researcher only observe 5) Case Studies o Focus on one or a few individuals o Indepth study of people with rare problem or unsual talent o Pros – Offer insight that cannot be obtained other ways o Cons – Small sample size, and subjectivity

5 Types of Psychological Research Experiments

Researcher control all the conditions and directly manipulates the independent variable. Sometimes there is a control group that may receive a placebo or no treatment to use as a standard against the subjects in experiment conditions.

PRO All variables are controlled in a lab environment. Which allows for repeatable experiments.

CONS Not all tests can be done in a lab setting, which can be limiting.

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Random assignment is also used to ensure that all participants in an experiment are randomised to avoid systematic bias such as gender or age. Correlation Studies

Used to determine if there’s a relationship between two variables. If the correlations are established, it is possible to use measurements of one variable to predict the other.

The most effective way to find the relationship in two variables. Can be used together with other research methods.

Does not always provide an answer (Cause) for the factors. Sometimes there may also be no correlation between variables.

However, correlation does not necessary mean causation. Just because two factors are related, doesn’t mean one causes the other. There may be another factor involved. Surveys

Used to gather information about people easily.

Allow for anonymity and can collect large amount of data with low cost.

Quality of information depends on clarity of questions asked, and has a lot of limitations

Naturalistic Observations

Used to observe how individuals act in their natural surroundings, without affecting the independent variable.

Allow for observation that cannot happen in a lab such as child rearing practices, animal behaviours.

Less controlled then experiments

Focuses on individuals, allowing for in-depth observation

Can offer valuable insides that no other methods can. Often called the clinical method

Case Studies

Often expensive and time consuming

Small sample size Unrepeatable in an experiment format Difficult to draw conclusions

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Figure 1:Positive & Negative Correlation

Biases in Psychology Research -

Emotional Bias Expectancy Bias

Ethical Issues in Psychology Research -

Informed consent Deception Social Media in Research Animal Studies

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Study Unit 2: Chapter 1 (Biological Basis of Behaviour) Neuron -

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Sensory neurons (Sense receptors towards CNS) , Motor neurons (From CNS to muscles) , Interneurons (Between Nerve cells) Combines electrical and chemical messages to perform their specialised function Dendrites (Receptor fibres) gather incoming messages and sends to Soma (Cell body)  Dendrites: Branch fiber that extends outwards from the cell body and carries information into neuron  Soma: Part of a cell containing the nucleus, also called cell body Triggers Action Potential (Nerve impulse), resulting in the messages being sent on as electrical discharges down the Axon to the neuron’s Terminal Button (Responsible for storing and releasing neurotransmitter)  Action Potential: Nerve impulse caused by a change in the electrical charge across the cell membrane of the axon, when the neuron fires, the charge travels down the axon and causes neurotransmitters to be released by terminal buttons  Axon: Extened fibre that conducts information from soma to terminal button. Information travels along the axon in the form of electric charge called action potential  Terminal buttons: bulb like structure at the end of the axon that contains neurotransmitter that carry the neuron’s message into the synapse Neurotransmitters containing the message are released to adjacent neurons  Neurotransmitter: Chemical messenger that relay neural messages across synapse. Many of them are hormones Glial Cells provide structural support for neurons Myelin Sheath forms the protective cover of axons in the brain and spinal cord

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Nervous System -

Comprises of Central Nervous System (CNS) & Peripheral Nervous System (PNS)

Central Nervous System -

Makes up of brain and spinal cord Brain: Responsible for making complex decisions, coordinating bodily functions and initiating behaviour Spinal cord: Connects to brain with PNS, including sensory and motor system. Responsible for involuntary (reflex) actions

Somatic Nervous System (Under PNS) -

Handles responses to external world Communicates with sense organs and voluntary muscles Receives information through sensory receptors and afferent/Sensory neurons and carry these towards CNS Brain process the information and in response, sends information via efferent neurons or motor neurons towards muscles and glands

Autonomic Nervous System (Under PNS) -

Regulates our internal organs with conscious awareness Divided into Sympathetic System and Parasympathetic System o Sympathetic System: Getting organs to function in response to stressful situation (Arousing of system: Pupils dilate, heart beats faster) o Parasympathetic System: Attempts to restore body to its calm state (Calming of system: Pupils constricts, heart beat slows)

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Endocrine System -

Hormone system, controlled by pituitary gland Responsible for hormonal functions such as thyroids, parathyroids, ovaries, testes. Affects bodily functions such as sexual development and responses

Brain -

Brainstem: Connects brain to spinal cord, controls breathing, heartbeat, waking, sleeping Cerebellum: Coordinates body movements and maintains equilibrium Amygdala: Controls emotional impulses such as aggressive urges Hypothalamus: Liaison between body and rest of the brain, releasing hormones to pituitary gland Thalamus: Sending signals from the body to brain (Relay Station) Cerebrum: Translate nerve impulse into higher level cognitive processes Cerebral cortex: Centre of co...