PSY107 Revision Notes PDF

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PSY107 Revision Notes: Chapter 1 CHAPTER 1: Mind, Behaviour, and Psychological Science 1. Identify the major psychological perspectives & describe how each explains behaviour  Biological, Cognitive, Behavioural, Whole-person (Psychodynamic, Humanistic, Traits & Temperaments), Developmental, Sociocultural 2. Describe the major goals of psychology a. Describe “what” – Operational definition (Objective descriptions of concepts involved in a scientific study. Operational definitions may restate concepts to be studied in behavioral terms (e.g., fear may be operationally defined as moving away from a stimulus). Operational definitions also specify the procedures used to produce and measure important variables under investigation (e.g., “attraction” may be measured by the amount of time one person spends looking at another).) b. Explain “why” – Theory (A testable explanation for a set of facts or observations. In science, a theory is not just speculation or a guess) c. Predict future behaviour d. Control behaviour by altering conditions (Modifying undesirable behaviours through proper intervention) 3. List the 4 steps of the scientific method (Scientific method: A four-step process for empirical investigation of a hypothesis under conditions designed to control biases and subjective judgments) a. Develop hypothesis (A statement predicting the outcome of a scientific study; a statement predicting the relationship among variables in a study) – must be stated in observable & measurable terms, & can be falsified b. Collect objective data (through different research methods) c. Analyse results & accept/reject hypothesis (requires usage of statistical proceures) d. Publish/criticize/replicate results 4. Describe the 5 psychological research methods a. Observations – naturalistic, laboratory b. Case Studies c. Surveys d. Correlational Studies (determine relationship – positive/negative/zero correlation) e. Experiments (determine cause-effect relationship) 5. Discuss typical ethical concerns that arise in applied psychology & in psychological research a. Informed consent b. Anonymity & confidentiality c. Minimal risk d. Debriefing (true purpose of study & possible benefits of study to participants)  Psychologists: School, Clinical and Counselling, Forensic, Environmental, Industrial/Organizational  Psychiatry: A medical specialty dealing with the diagnosis and treatment of mental disorders  Correlation does not mean causation Term Psychology

Definition The science of behaviour and mental processes.

Biological perspective

The psychological perspective that searches for the causes of behaviour in the functioning of genes, the brain and nervous system, and the endocrine (hormone) system. Another of the main psychological viewpoints distinguished by an emphasis on mental processes, such as learning, memory, perception, and thinking, as forms of information processing. A psychological viewpoint that finds the source of our actions in environmental stimuli, rather than in inner mental processes. A group of psychological

Cognitive perspective

Behavioural perspective

Whole-

Elaboration Example  Scientific study  Empiricism (based on objective information gathered through observation & research) Our personalities, preferences, Procrastination, from this perspective, may result from a behaviour patterns, and certain type of brain chemistry abilities which could be inherited. all stem from our physical makeup. Our actions are influenced by the way we interpret our experience.

The way our actions are modified by their consequences.

Psychodynamic: A clinical

Procrastinators may be victims of confirmation bias if they remember the times they previously procrastinated yet completed a project on time, while forgetting the deadlines they missed. When a child is praised for saying “Thank you” or an adult is rewarded for good job performance with a pay raise. Psychodynamic:

PSY107 Revision Notes: Chapter 1 person perspective

perspectives that take a global view of the person: Included are psychodynamic psychology, humanistic psychology, and trait and temperament psychology.

Developmen tal perspective

One of the six main psychological viewpoints, distinguished by its emphasis on nature and nurture and on predictable changes that occur across the lifespan.

Sociocultura l perspective

A main psychological viewpoint emphasizing the importance of social interaction, social learning, and culture in explaining human behaviour.

Emotional bias

The tendency to make judgments based on attitudes and feelings, rather than on the basis of a rational analysis of the evidence. The tendency to attend to evidence that complements and confirms our beliefs or expectations, while ignoring evidence that does not. The researcher allowing his or her expectations to affect the outcome of a study.

Confirmation bias

Expectancy bias

Experiments

Independent variable

Dependent variable

Experimenta

A kind of research in which the researcher controls all the conditions and directly manipulates the conditions, including the independent variable. A stimulus condition so named because the experimenter changes it independently of all the other carefully controlled experimental conditions. The measured outcome of a study; the responses of the subjects in a study. Participants in an experiment

approach emphasizing the understanding of mental disorders in terms of unconscious needs, desires, memories, and conflicts. (motives & mental conflicts)

Psychoanalysis – A person’s pattern of self-defeating behaviour (e.g., procrastination) as motivated by an unconscious fear of failure.

Humanistic: A clinical approach emphasizing human ability, growth, potential, and free will.

Humanistic: Maslow’s hierarchy of needs. People can exercise free will to make choices affecting their life & growth.

Trait & Temperament: A psychological perspective that views behaviour and personality as the products of enduring psychological characteristics. (Disposition – the Big 5 personality) People change in predictable ways as the influences of heredity and environment unfold over time. (physical & psychological developmental stages)

Other people influence our behaviour just as much as our own internal thoughts, motives, and emotions.

Trait & Temperament: Differences among people arise from differences in persistent characteristics and internal dispositions Humans think and act differently at different times of their lives. Psychological development includes the acquisition of language, logical thinking, and the assumption of different roles at different times of life.  Power of the situation – Social & cultural situation can influence behaviour  People may behave differently in different contexts Believing someone is a good person despite evidence to the contrary.

Gamblers have better recollections for their wins than for their losses.

Researcher only observes what he expects to see.

 Determine cause-effect relationship  Independent/dependent variable  Experimental vs. Control group The variable (e.g., treatment) which is controlled or manipulated by the researcher.

The variable (e.g., behaviour) which is expected to depend on the effects of the independent variable. Participants who receive the

Psychology students training rats to perform behaviours. One group was told the rats were intelligent, while the other was told the rats were slow learners. Sugar-hyperactivity experiment

Sugar-hyperactivity experiment: Does intake of sugar affect activity levels of child?

Sugar-hyperactivity

PSY107 Revision Notes: Chapter 1 l group Control group

Placebo

Placebo effect Random assignment

Correlational Studies

Positive correlation

Negative correlation

Zero correlation

who are exposed to the treatment of interest. Participants who are used as a comparison for the experimental group. The control group is not given the special treatment of interest. Substance that appears to be a drug but is not. Placebos are often referred to as “sugar pills” because they might contain only sugar, rather than a real drug. A response to a placebo (a fake drug) caused by the belief that it is a real drug. A process used to assign individuals to various experimental conditions by chance alone. A form of research in which the relationship between variables is studied, but without the experimental manipulation of an independent variable. Correlational studies cannot determine cause-and-effect relationships. A correlation indicating that the variables change simultaneously in the same direction: As one grows larger or smaller, the other grows or shrinks in a parallel way. A correlation indicating that the variables change simultaneously in opposite directions: As one becomes larger, the other gets smaller. When two variables have no relationship to each other.

Surveys

A technique used in descriptive research, typically involving seeking people’s responses to a prepared set of verbal or written items.

Naturalistic observation

A form of descriptive research involving behavioral assessment of people or animals in their natural surroundings.

Laboratory observation (systematic observation)

treatment.  Participants who undergo all the same procedures as the experimental group, except for the treatment.  Serves as a baseline to compare against Participants’ expectations lead them to experience change even though their treatment is fake or ineffectual.

Participants are assigned to each group purely by chance.

 Some experiments cannot be carried out due to practical/ethical considerations  Used to determine which variables are related

experiment: High-sugar drinks vs Artificially sweetened drinks

List the individuals alphabetically and then assign alternating names to the experimental and control groups. Family income & academic performance

Ingestion of lead paint lead to higher risks for learning disabilities.

Consumption of alcohol & GPA: Higher alcohol intake  Lower GPA

Knowing value of one measure Height & GPA does not allow prediction of the other measure  Can ask same things in different phrasing to ensure validity  Pros: Large number of respondents, easy to administer, can address questions not answered by other approaches  Cons: Sampling bias (over-representation), social desirability bias (answering in socially/politcally “correct” ways), survey fatigue  Observing children during  Natural environment, not free play time manipulated  Observing animals in their  Pros: Reveals insights, natural habitat consists ecological validity (allows further generalization)  Cons: Can be timeconsuming & expensive in certain conditions, may not always observe desired behaviours, little or no control is possible  Observing behaviour under controlled conditions, & focus on small number of behaviours  Pros: More control over situation, increases likelihood of participants engaging in desired behaviour

PSY107 Revision Notes: Chapter 1

Case study

Research involving a single individual (or, at most, a few individuals).

Single blind control Double-blind study

Participants are unaware of group assignment. An experimental procedure in which both researchers and participants are uninformed about the nature of the independent variable being administered.

 Cons: Reactivity (whereas participants do not behave naturally as they are being watched)  Phineas Gage  Pros: In-depth study,  Little Albert provides method to study rare phonomena  Cons: Inability to generalize across other individuals, little or no control is possible, does not provide a control group

Reduces expectancy biases

In a drug study, neither researchers nor participants would know (until the end of study) who would be getting the new drug or placebo.

PSY107 Revision Notes: Chapter 2 CHAPTER 2: Biopsychology, Neuroscience, and Human Nature 1. Describe the structure of a neuron and explain the mechanism of neural transmission  Dendrite  Soma  Axon (action potential)  Terminal buttons  Tiny vesicles (neurotransmitters)  Synapse  Receptors  Reuptake 2. List & describe the major divisions and subdivisions of the nervous system and the functions of each a. Central nervous system (brain, spinal cord) b. Peripheral nervous system  Autonomic nervous system (sympathetic division & parasympathetic division)  Somatic nervous system (sensory/afferent nervous system & motor/efferent nervous system) 3. Identify the major structures and specialised functions of the brain a. Brain stem (Pons, Medulla, Reticular formation) b. Cerebellum c. Limbic system (Amygdala, Hippocampus, Thalamus, Hypothalamus) d. Cerebral cortex (Frontal lobe, Parietal lobe, Temporal lobe, Occipital lobe) 4. Describe hemispheric specialisation a. Corpus callosum b. Left hemisphere (superior in language function) c. Right hemisphere (superior in spatial relationships)

d. Split-brain patients: (Duality of consciousness – condition in which a split-brain patient has a separate consciousness in each hemisphere)  Corpus callosum enables communication between hemispheres. Therefore, when severed, each hemisphere must process information on its own.  Sensory pathways cross over to opposite sides as they ascend the cortex, hence each side of the body communicates with the opposite side of the brain. Each hemisphere perceives touch sensation from the hand on the opposite side of the body.  Language is usually a left-hemisphere function. When combined with contralateral sensory pathways, patients could name objects when they were processed in the left hemisphere. Hence, when sensory messages came from the right visual field or right hand, the message crossed over to the left hemisphere could name the object. However, objects seen in the left visual field or left hand, the message will cross over to the right hemisphere for processing (right hemisphere cannot produce speech), hence they are unable to name the object. But they were able to identify it by touch. 5. Identify several methods used to study the brain and describe the strengths & weaknesses of each method a. Electroencephalo-graph (EEG) – A device for recording brain waves, typically by electrodes placed on the scalp. The record produced is known as an electro-encephalogram.  Pros: Reveals abnormal waves caused by brain malfunctions, such as epilepsy  Cons: Not very precise – does not give a detailed electrical picture of the brain b. Computerized tomography (CT scanning) – A computerized imaging technique that uses X-rays passed through the brain at various angles and then combined into an image  Pros: Creates digital images of the brain from X-ray passed through the brain at various angles. With sophisticated computer analysis, the tomography reveals soft-tissue structures of the brain that X-rays alone cannot see. Produces good 3D images of the brain, & is relatively inexpensive.  Cons: X-rays can be harmful in high doses c. Positron Emission Tomography (PET scanning) – An imaging technique that relies on the detection of radioactive sugar consumed by active brain cells  Pros: Shows brain activity  Cons: Long-term exposure to radioactive elements used in PET scans may be harmful d. Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) – An imaging technique that relies on cells’ responses in a high-intensity magnetic field

PSY107 Revision Notes: Chapter 2  Pros: Creates highly clear & detailed 3D images of the brain’s structure without the use of X-rays  Cons: Slightly expensive. Combination of enclosed space & loud noises made by magnets can cause some individuals to feel claustrophobic. e. Functional Magnetic Resonance Imaging (fMRI) – A newer form of magnetic resonance imaging that records both brain structure and brain activity  Pros: Records both brain structure and brain activity, offering both advantages of PET & MRI.  Cons: Expensive. Can only capture a clear image if the invididual being scanned stays completely still. 

Biopsychology: The specialty in psychology that studies the interaction of biology, behavior, and mental processes

Term Neuron

Sensory neuron (afferent neuron) Motor neuron (efferent neuron) Interneuron

Dendrite

Soma

Axon

Resting potential Action potential

Synapse

Terminal

Definition Cell specialized to receive and transmit information to other cells in the body—also called a nerve cell. Bundles of many neurons are called nerves. A nerve cell that carries messages toward the central nervous system from sense receptors; also called afferent neurons. A nerve cell that carries messages away from the central nervous system toward the muscles and glands; also called efferent neurons. A nerve cell that relays messages between nerve cells, especially in the brain and spinal cord. Branched fiber that extends outward from the cell body and carries information into the neuron. The part of a cell (such as a neuron) containing the nucleus, which includes the chromosomes; also called the cell body. In a nerve cell, an extended fiber that conducts information from the soma to the terminal buttons. Information travels along the axon in the form of an electric charge called the action potential. The electrical charge of the axon in its inactive state, when the neuron is ready to “fire.” The nerve impulse caused by a change in the electrical charge across the cell membrane of the axon. When the neuron “fires,” this charge travels down the axon and causes neurotransmitters to be released by the terminal buttons. The microscopic gap that serves as a communications link between neurons. Synapses also occur between neurons and the muscles or glands they serve. Tiny bulblike structures at the

Elaboration Fundamental processing units in the brain.

Example Types: Sensory neurons, Motor neurons, Interneuron

When you test the water temperature in the shower with your hand, afferent neurons carry the message toward the brain. Motor neurons deliver the message that tells your hand just how much to move the shower control knob. Interneurons relay messages from sensory neurons to other interneurons or to motor neurons, sometimes in complex pathways. Accepts most incoming messages

 Excitatory vs Inhibitory messages (processing)  Overall level of arousal depends on the sum of incoming messages  Carries information away from the neuron  Resting vs Action potential

Negative electrical charge

Axon gets electrical energy from charge chemicals (ions)

Gap between adjacent neurons

Releases neurotransmitters

All-or-none principle: Refers to the fact that the action potential in the axon occurs either completely or not at all.

PSY107 Revision Notes: Chapter 2 buttons

Synaptic transmission Neurotrans mitter

Reuptake

Plasticity

Glial Cell

Nervous system Central Nervous System (CNS)

Contralatera l pathways

Peripheral Nervous System (PNS) Somatic nervous system

Autonomic

end of the axon that contain neurotransmitters that carry the neuron’s message into the synapse. The relaying of information across the synapse by means of chemical neurotransmitters. Chemical messenger that relays neural messages across the synapse. Many neurotransmitters are also hormones. The process by which unused neurotransmitters are drawn back into the vesicles of their originating neuron. The nervo...