PSY107 Study notes - for reference PDF

Preview

Summary

Chapter 1: Introduction to PsychologyWhat is psychology?“Psychology is a broad field with many specialities, but fundamentally psychology is the science of behaviour and mental processes. “ (study guide)Is the study of the mind and thing which are internal, something that we can verified.How our min...

Description

Stereoscope Stereogram It is possible to perceive depth with one eye relying on monocular cues. Types of cues artists use to paint 3D picture:        

Relative size Linear perspective Interposition (overlap) Relative height Relative brightness Texture gradient Atmospheric /aerial perspective Relative motion

Chapter 5: Memory Memory is an information processing systems that works constructively to encode, store, and retrieve information.

It is a cognitive system that first processes, encodes, and store the information we learn and later allows us to retrieve. Memory is functional and useful. It helps us to navigate the environment for survival. Models of Memory Traditaional memory Atkinson & Shiffrin (1968) model Non-traditional memory Baddeley’s (1992) Working memory model Traditional memory - Atkinson & Shiffrin (1968) The three store model of memory is the traditional memory and also known as the following;  Atkinson & Shiffrin (1968)  Information-processing view of memory  Modal model of memory

Sensory memory – are information that are not attended to. Can be view as a short-term sensory buffer which receive stimulus information through our five senses. For example, visual information are stored in iconic memory and auditory information are stored in iconic memory.

Iconic Memory – Sperling (1963) test of iconic memory has whole report procedure and partial report procedure Short-Term Memory (STM) – are memory that are attended to and transferred from the sensory memory. STM has a limited capacity and is able to stored 7 plus/minus 2 bits of information at a time (Miller, 1956). This method is called chuncking where a number of items and pack into larger unit.

Hence STM, requires repeated rehearsal in order to hold the information for a period of time before it gets transferred to LTM. If failed to rehearse it, normally, you would tend to forget it after 18-20 seconds. Working memory (WM) is another name for STM. STM was often viewed as limited capacity and only operates a few seconds. The concept of WM is an extension of this idea, where STM is woven together with higher cognitive processes such as learning, reasoning and comprehension. Example: listening to lecture while taking down notes and watching the lecturer and the power point sildes.

Long-Term Memory (LTM) – has unlimited capacity to stored information. Information in LTM is stored in two main compartments; Procedural Memory (knowing how) and Declarative Memory (knowing what). Declarative memory is further divided into semantic memory and episodic memory.

Amnesia – Memory Loss Antegrade – is a form of amnesia where new events are not transferred to LTM. Also known as Shortterm memory failure Retrograde – where someone is unable to recall events that occurred before the onset of amnesia. Also known as Long-term memory failure

Memory’s Three basic task Encoding Involves modification of information to fit the preferred format of the memory system 1) Select stimulus 2) Idetntify distincitive feature 3) Label to make experience meaningful Elaboration – give it a meaning to the information.

Storage Involve retention of encoded material over time

Access and Retrieval Involves the location and recovery of information from memory

How do we memories? – each of the memory stage encodes and stores memories differently, but work together to transform sensory experience into lasting record that has a pattern of meaning.

The three stage of memory (similar to Atkinson & Shiffrin (1968) but instead of STM it is WM) Sensory Memory Preserves brief sensory impression of stimuli, also called sensory register George Sperling (1963)

Working Memory Preserves recently perceived events or experiences for less than a minute without rehearsal, also called shortterm memory (STM)

Long-term memory Stores material organised accoding to meaning

Working Memory;  A mental work space where we sort and encode information before adding it to more permanent storage  Information is stored for about 20 seconds  Rehearsal leads to longer duration  Capacity of the “chunking” store information in bits of 7. Working memory consit of:  Central executive – directs attention to inputs  Sketchpad – stores and manipulates visual images  Phological loop – helps to hold words we hear and ariticulate it by repeating the word in a loop  Episodic buffer – helps to remember events  Semantic buffer – helps attach meaning to words.

Long Term Memory; Declarative memory – Division of LTM that stores explicit information (aka fact memory)  Semantic Memory – Subdivision of declarative memory that stores general knowledge, including meaning of words and concepts

Episodic Memory – Subdivision of declarative memory that stores memories for personal events. Procedural memory – Division of LTM that stores memories for how things are done (aka skills) According to Linton (1982) research, for Semantic memory, the strength of memory increases with over the number of time rehearsed in memorising the items. Whereas, for episodic memory, the strength of memory decline with the number of event repeated. 

Encoding and Storage in working memory Encoding Maintenance Rehearsal Elaborative Rehearsal Level of processing theory

Process of transforming what a person sees, hear, feels ro think into a memory Process in which information is repeated or reviewed to keep it from fading while in working memory Process in which information is actively reviewed and relates to information already in LTM (already in our memory) Explanation for the fact that information that is more

thoroughly connected to meaningful terms in LTM will be better remembered How do we store information in memory? Shallow processing: Maintenance rehearsal – keeping information active in STM by repeating over and over again Deep processing: Elaborative rehearsal – meaningfully associate incoming stimuli with previously learned materials. Encoding – Memory Glue Encoding modality - mode in which information is stored  Sensory Memory – Visually (imagery)  STM – Auditority/ Aurraly (sounds/ phonological)  LTM – Semantically (meaning) Examples : Rose  Sensory memory – focus on the work written (eg. Upper, lower or mixed case or the font size)  STM – does the word rhyme with “pose”or “hose” (forming words phonologically)  LTM – is the word a type of flower or a girls name. (finding meaning to the word) How to improve memory? (strategies) Deep processing:  Chunking – group items into larger units  Elaborative rehearsal –meaningfully associate incoming stimuli with previously learned material  Recall clustering – find meaning to group them in semantically-related clusters  Subjective organization – self-developed categories (group them base on you own recognisable categories)  Recoding – transformation from one form to another. (eg. Relating rose to a flower or a girls name then recoding them visually) Memory Retrieval Cues Whether memories are implicit or explicit, successful retrieval depends on how they were encoded and how they are cued Implicit memory - Memory that was not deliberately learned or of which you have no conscious awareness (procedural memory) Explicit memory – Memory that has been processed with attention and can be consciously recalled (declarative memory) Retrieval cue such as Priming helps to recall memories. Priming - Procedure of providing cues that stimulate memories without awareness of the connection between the cue and the retrieved memory Recall – Technique for retrieving explicit memories in which one must reproduce previously presented information (MCQ)

Recognition – Technique for retrieving explicit memories in which one must identify present stimuli as having been previously presented (open response questions) Factors affecting retrieval of memories Encoding specificity principle – The more closely/match the retrieval cues match the form in which the information was encoded, the better the information will be remembered. Examples as follows Learning phase: To-be-remembered word = Present Retrieval cue = taken to a birthday party Types of retrieval cue during recall phase: • Verbatum: taken to a birthday party (direct) • Related: a gift • Different: a grammatical tense (totally different from the phrase and meaning) Mood-congruent memory – A happy moods is likely to trigger happy memories, depression perpetuates itself through biased retrieval of depressing memories State-dependent learning – remember better when we are in the emotional state that is similar to the one in which we encoded and stored the information. evidence of support for this with love, anger, frustration, rage, sober etc.

Example: if you are studying in a sad mood, taking exam in a sad mood would likely help you to remember better than you are in happy mood. Similarly if you are in a happy mood studying, you better be happy during the exam to remember better. It is the same for environment, hence, exam is conducted in a quiet environment, to do well we should study in a quiet environment so that we can retrieve informal easily. Therefore the state at the time of learning need to match the state at the time of testing to retrieve information easily because the emotional state serve as a cue to retrieve information. Classic Interference Theory  Proactive interference – interfering effects of prior learning on later learning

Example:



Retroactive interference – new information disrupts the retention of prior information Example:

Tip-of-the-tongue situation - forgetting that occurs when an item in memory cannot be accessed or retrieved. Example: trying to recall the title of the movie, where you knew that the information is there but it is currently inaccessible. Memory Failure (7 Sins) Serial position cure (primming) – find out please. Memory is not reliable: Misattribution – Memory fault that occurs when retrieved memories are associated with the wrong time, place, or person Misinformation effect – distortion of memory caused by misinformation (cues and suggestions) False memories – fabricated memories Biases – attitude, beliefs, emotion, or experience that distorts memories

Chapter 6: Thinking and Human Intelligence https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=QelK8rDrbpM&t=1s Our brian organised things so that we can think fast. Or we can retrieve fast. Why red. Evolution thorey “red” means danger. “Broad to specific” lvl 1 to lvl 3 How to solve problem? Identify & Find a solution Juding and making decisions (7 bias) Heuristic bias (cognitive biases) Confirmation bias – example of beating the child. But research says that it is not good but grandparent do not agreed. Hindsight bias – you think you know but you actually don’t know Anchoring bias – showing you the original price (anchoring) then show you the discount price. You feel that you are saving money but actually you are not. Representativenss bias – once something is categories, they are seen to be like this Availability – people would think that travelling by plane is more dangerous because the survivor rate is low Tranny of choice - https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Ya-6QguFmRo Halo effect: Science of Attraction - https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ZuometYfMTk this is an example of faulty heuristic biases. Intelligence Normally distributed trait. (Statiscal term) Normal distribution curve. Average = +/- 15 from mean score Standard deviation below or above of the curve comparing against the mean (100) IQ test has different categories. Factor analysis. Spearman’s G factor = factor analysis based on galton’s correlation.

Nature vs Nurture – Fluid intelligence and crystallized intelligence. Impt – How do psychologist explain IQ differecs among groups? Exam questions. Heritability group differences. Key term is Genetics. White vs Black in American. By genetics we are almost the same we cannot compare both genetics in difference given environment or conditions.

a. Observations – naturalistic, laboratory b. Case Studies c. Surveys d. Correlational Studies (determine relationship – positive/negative/zero correlation) e. Experiments (determine cause-effect relationship a. Observations – naturalistic, laboratory b. Case Studies c. Surveys d. Correlational Studies (determine relationship –

positive/negative/zero correlation) e. Experiments (determine cause-effect relationship a. Observations – naturalistic, laboratory b. Case Studies c. Surveys d. Correlational Studies (determine relationship – positive/negative/zero correlation) e. Experiments (determine cause-effect relationship) a. Observations – naturalistic, laboratory b. Case Studies c. Surveys

d. Correlational Studies (determine relationship – positive/negative/zero correlation) e. Experiments (determine cause-effect relationship) a. Observations – naturalistic, laboratory b. Case Studies c. Surveys d. Correlational Studies (determine relationship – positive/negative/zero correlation) e. Experiments (determine cause-effect relationship) a. Observations – naturalistic, laboratory b. Case Studies

c. Surveys d. Correlational Studies (determine relationship – positive/negative/zero correlation) e. Experiments (determine cause-effect relationship) a. Observations – naturalistic, laboratory b. Case Studies c. Surveys d. Correlational Studies (determine relationship – positive/negative/zero correlation) e. Experiments (determine cause-effect relationship)...