Psych 1100 Exam 1 Study Guide PDF

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Psych 1100 Study Guide Section 1.1 History of Psychology ● Philosophy - emphasis on memory, learning, acquisition of knowledge ● Medicine/Physiology - emphasis on sensory processes, learning mechanisms ○ Has relation to other sciences ● Social Science vs. Natural Science Psychologists ● Geisteswissenschaft - Belief that sociology and psychology should be classified as humanities rather than as a natural science ● Naturwissenschaften - Distinction between nature and spirit Two Important Philosophers ● Descartes, Dualist - Mind/body, Body operates according to mechanical principles. Mind is separate from body, interacts through pineal gland ● Spinoza, Monist - Mind and body are two different aspects of the same phenomenon. Established a philosophical basis for much psychology and neuroscience British Empiricists and Associationism ● Emphasized sensory experience as the basis of knowledge ● Emphasized that sensory experiences could be associated or lined; suggested “Law of Association” - mind when born is a clean slate, all knowledged has to be acquired by learning ● One of these was the Law of Temporal Contiguity - two experiences happen close in time and therefore associated with one another ● Spatial Contiguity: associating something with the place it takes place (teacher and classroom) Developments in Physiology and Medicine ● Physiology views organisms as functioning according to physical, chemical and mechanical principles Harvey ● Harvey - understanding mechanics of circulation ○ Basis of circulation..heart acts as a pump Pseudoscience and Science ● Pseudoscience of Phrenology assumed that different brain areas had different functions ○ Incorrectly: Linked bumps on the head to made-up functions ● Phrenology - Thought could identify behavioral characteristics by examining bumps on the skull ● Medical scientists came to understand how different parts of the brain performed different functions ○ E.g. case of Phineas Gage Development of Scientific Psychology ● Sensory physiologists started to study perceptual phenomena in laboratories ● Wilhelm Wundt established the first psychology laboratory in 1876 ● Wilhelm Wundt (Germany) and William James (USA) wrote influential psychology textbooks

Section 1.2 The Individual Neuron and the Organization of the Nervous System ● Several Organ systems are important for biological basis of psychology ○ Motor, digestive, endocrine (hormones) ○ Nervous system is particularly important Neurons ● Neurons are nerve cells, the basic cellular units of the nervous system ● Parts of the Neuron: ○ Soma (receiving pole) ○ Dendrite (receiving pole) ○ Axon - transmitting pole (can be covered with myelin) Myelin sheath speeds up action potential ○ Terminal - chemical signals (neurotransmitters) are released from terminals ● Neurons are electrically and chemically active ○ Electrical activity, “action potentials” ○ Chemical signaling, release of chemicals on other neurons The Synapse ● SYNAPSE - the point of functional connection between two neurons ○ Synaptic Cleft - Gap which separates two neurons ■ Neurons communicate to each other through NEUROTRANSMITTERS ○ Neurotransmitters are released from the terminals of the presynaptic neuron ○ The Neurotransmitter diffuses across the synapse to act on the POSTSYNAPTIC membrane of the second cell ○ The postsynaptic cell then transduces this chemical activity into some type of metabolic or electrical change Organization of the Nervous System ● Central Nervous System (CNS) ○ Brain ○ Spinal Cord ● Peripheral Nervous System (PNS) ○ Axons, terminals and cell bodies in the rest of the body, including sensory, motor and autonomic systems Aggregations of Cellular Components ● Aggregations (cluster) of cell bodies (i.e., somata): ○ Nucleus (CNS) ○ Ganglion (PNS) ■ Sometimes referred to as “Gray Matter” ● Bundles of Axons: ○ Tract (CNS) ○ Nerve (PNS) ■ Sometimes referred to as “White Matter” 1.3 Methods For Studying Relation Between Psychological and Nervous System Functions ● Lesion Method: Study effects of tissue damage

○ Clinical ○ Experimental Lesion Method ● Lesion Method - study of the behavioral effects of damage to the nervous system Recording Methods ● Electrical recording ○ Electroencephalograph (EEG) - records fluctuations in electrical activity, useful for sleep and epilepsy research ■ Electrical activity is recorded from the surface of the skull; “brain waves” represent electrical changes over time ○ Evoked potential (or ERP), an EEG response evoked by a stimulus ○ Single neuron recording - records action potentials from individual neurons ■ E.x. As a rat moves through a maze, activity of “place cells” can be recorded in a brain area known as the hippocampus ● Chemical Recording ○ Microdialysis - Minimal invasive sampling technique which allows for measurement of chemical activity in the brain ○ Sampling of cerebrospinal fluid ● Drugs ○ Studying how drugs, which cause neurochemical changes, affect behavior Studies of the Behavioral effects of Drugs ● Drugs Modify the process of chemical transmission in the nervous system ○ Alter neurotransmitter synthesis ○ Block storage of transmitter ○ Stimulate or block receptors ○ Block the enzymatic breakdown or uptake of transmitter Imaging Methods ● CT or CAT (computerized tomography) - capture the brain structure ● sMRI (structural magnetic resonance imaging) - brain structure (finer image than CT) ● fMRI (Functional magnetic resonance imaging) - flow of oxygenated blood ● PET (positron emission tomography) - Glucose-related metabolic activity 1.4 Macroscopic Neuroanatomy: PNS & CNS ● Peripheral Nervous System (PNS) ○ Ganglia (cell bodies) ○ Nerves (axons) ● Sources of Nerves: ○ Spinal Nerves ○ Cranial Nerves ● Functions of Peripheral Nerves: ○ Sensory ○ Motor ○ Autonomic Spinal Cord and Spinal Nerve Roots (Sensory, Motor and Autonomic)

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Autonomic Nervous System ○ Sympathetic and Parasympathetic divisions: control automatic and regulatory functions such as heart rate, blood flow, digestion, excretion and breathing ■ Sympathetic - Tends to speed you up, or promote energy expenditure. Part of fight or flight ■ Parasympathetic - tends to conserve energy, promote digestion, secretion (saliva or stomach acids). Can be activated by stress Organization of the brain ● Forebrain ○ Telencephalon ■ Neocortex ● “New” evolutionarily; large in mammals, especially primates; Neocortex has 6 layers of cells ● Divided into Lobes: Frontal, Parietal, Temporal, and Occipital ● In animals with large cortex: it has “convolutions” or folds ○ Gyrus or “Hill”; outward fold ○ Sulcus or “valley”; inward fold ● For Each function represented in the various lobes of the neocortex, there are areas known as “Primary” functional areas and areas known as “Secondary” or “Association” ○ Primary areas: more basic or fundamental functions ○ Association areas: more complex or integrative functions ■ Basal Ganglia: includes several nuclei: caudate, putamen, globus pallidus ● Involved in motor function, learning, sensory/motor integration ● Receives dopamine input from cells in substantia nigra, these cells die in Parkinson's disease ● Loss of dopamine induces motor symptoms of Parkinson’s disease ■ Limbic System: ● Septum - involved in aspects of learning ● Amygdala - aspects of learning, important for emotional processes ● Hippocampus - critical for forming new memories; degenerates in Alzheimer's disease. If affected by stroke could lead to amnesia ○ Diencephalon ■ Thalamus: several discrete nuclei ● RELAY area; sensory relay for vision, hearing, touch and taste ● Also has motor areas ● Thalamic nuclei “map” onto overlying neocortex ■ Hypothalamus: several discrete nuclei ● Involved in aspects of motivation ● Point of communication between brain and endocrine system; regulates functions of pituitary gland ● Midbrain

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Also known as mesencephalon ■ Tectum (“roof”) ● Superior colliculus: important for motor function, vision ● Inferior colliculus: acts as a relay nucleus for hearing pathways ■ Tegmentum (“Floor”) ● Motor control; contains cells that use the transmitter dopamine (DA), and project to basal ganglia in forebrain. ● Cells die in Parkinson’s Disease ● Hindbrain ○ Myelencephalon ■ Medulla (medulla oblongata) ● Life support, especially breathing ● Control of digestion ● Sensory and motor functions ○ Metencephalon ■ Pons ● Sensory and motor control ● Connections to the cerebellum ■ Cerebellum ● Sensory and motor integration ● Motor coordination ● Learning Language Areas of the Brain ● Broca's Area: in the frontal lobe, important for motor production of speech ● Wernicke’s Area: Mainly in temporal lobe, important for comprehension of language, and generation of meaningful language ○ For most people the left hemisphere is language dominant. That is true for virtually all right-handers, and also for most left-handers Axonal Fibers That Connect The Two Hemispheres ● Corpus Callosum: axons that link left and right sides of neocortex together ○ These fibers enable the brain to stitch together the visual representations in each half of the cortex, and allow language related areas in one hemisphere to influence functions in opposite hemisphere ○ Split Brain people had their corpus callosum cut in a surgical intervention; it severed the communication between the two hemispheres 1.6 Neurophysiology, Neurochemistry and Drug Action ● Neurons are…. ○ Electrically active ○ Chemical active ● Neurons transduce information ○ Sensory information ○ Chemical signals from other neurons ● Neurons also transmit information

○ Neurons are electrically active ○ Electrical impulses are generated in response to stimulation ○ Chemical signals are sent to other neurons 1) Neurons are electrically active; They have a resting voltage, and can undergo electrical changes 2) Neurons can “fire”; They generate Action Potentials that move along the axon 3) When the action potential reaches the terminals, it causes a chemical signal (neurotransmitter) to be released, which moves across the synapse to affect a second neuron ● Resting Membrane Potential ○ At rest inside a cell membrane is 70 mV relative to the outside Important Ions For Electrophysiology of Neurons ● Anions (-) negative charge ● Cations (+) positive charge ○ Sodium- Na+ Channels are MOSTLY CLOSED, pump is spending energy to pump Na+ out of the cell ○ Potassium - K+ channels mostly open ○ Chloride - Cl- channels mostly open ○ Calcium - Ca++ Forces That Move Ions 1) Movement along the chemical gradient (from area of high concentration to area of low concentration 2) Movement along the electrical gradient (like charges repel, opposite charges attract) Membrane-Bound Proteins ● Channels - pores that open or close, allowing ions to pass through ● Receptors - detect the presence of the neurotransmitter; transmitters bind to their receptors ● Enzymes - biological catalysts that promote chemical reactions; they synthesize transmitters and intracellular signals known as “second messengers” ● Transport Mechanisms - pump substances across the membrane; e.g. “sodium pump” or “sodium-potassium pump” Resting Membrane Potential ● Why is it negative? ○ Something positive (Na+) is actively pumped out ○ The positive Na+ ions cannot get back in because Na+ channels are closed ○ This sets up an electromotive force for sodium; ● How does the Neuron become excited? ○ Anything that makes membrane more permeable to Na+ will ‘discharge’ the sodium powered battery ○ Excitation results from increase in Na+ influx into cell ○ Inside of cell moves in positive direction Electrical Activity of Neurons ● EPSP - excitatory postsynaptic potential; small, transient movement in the positive direction; ‘depolarization’; can vary in size

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IPSP - inhibitory postsynaptic potential; small, transient movement in the negative direction; ‘hyperpolarization’; can vary in size ● Action Potential - very large, rapid change in positive direction, followed by return to baseline; neuron “fires”; also known as a “spike”; action potential fires when voltage crosses the threshold Propagation of These Electrical Impulses ● EPSPs and IPSPs are propagated in a graded and decremental fashion. ● Graded - They vary in size, can be larger or smaller depending upon the size of the inputs ● Decremental - They are largest at the point (i.e. synapse) of initial stimulation, and decrease in size as they move away from that point Propagation of Action Potentials ● ******Action Potentials are not graded and not decremental******* ● Action potentials….. ○ Are ALL OR NONE, they either fire or don't ○ Remain the same size as they travel down the axon Mechanisms Underlying Action Potential ● Voltage shoots up in positive direction (ascending limb) and then shoots down in negative direction (descending limb) ● These effects are mediated by opening of voltage-gated channels ○ Ascending limb - voltage gated Na+ channels open, Na+ goes in ○ Descending limb - voltage gated K+ channels open, K+ goes out Examples of Mechanisms That Produce EPSPs and IPSPs ● Excitatory neurotransmitter: GLUTAMATE ○ Glutamate receptors detect Glutamate, Receptor Linked to a Positive-Ion channel, Na+ goes into cell ● Inhibitory neurotransmitter: GABA ○ Gaba Receptors detect GABA, receptor linked to a Cl- Channel, Cl- goes into cell ● Chemically-Gated Channels ○ Linked to receptors ○ Detection of transmitter by receptor opens channel Information Processing By Neurons ● Each Neuron receives many excitatory and inhibitory inputs, such as a tiny computer. Receive inputs and adds them together (summation) or integrates over time and space ● These inputs are integrated ○ Over Time (temporal summation) ○ Space (spatial summation) ● If the summed excitatory input at the initial part of the axon exceeds the threshold, an action potential is fired ● ACTION POTENTIALS convey information by their pattern and frequency Chemical Transmission ● Neurotransmitter release is triggered by the action potential ○ When it reaches the terminal, opens

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Voltage gated calcium channels ■ Calcium flows into the terminal Stages of Chemical Transmission ● Synthesis - transmitter made by enzymes ● Storage - stored in vesicles ● Release - released from terminals ● Postsynaptic Action - moves across synapse, acts on receptors ● Inactivation - by enzymes or uptake (VIEW DIAGRAM) Studies of The Behavioral Effects of Drugs ● Drugs modify Chemical Transmission in the Nervous System ○ Alter neurotransmitter synthesis ○ Block Storage of transmitter ○ Stimulate or block receptors ○ Block the inactivation (enzymatic breakdown or uptake) of transmitter Psychopharmacology ● Antiparkinsonian Drug - L-DOPA ○ Precursor (starting material) of DA; Increases DA Synthesis, restores DA levels in Basal Ganglia ● Antipsychotic Drugs - Haldol, Thorazine, Clozapine ○ Block receptors for the neurotransmitter dopamine (DA) ● Antidepressant Drugs - Prozac, Zoloft ○ Block the Inactivation (uptake) of Serotonin (5-HT) ○ Other antidepressants can have actions on other transmitter (NE & DA) ● Anti Anxiety Drugs - Valium, Librium, Xanax ○ Facilitate the inhibitory actions of GABA on a type of GABA receptor ● Major Stimulant Drugs - Cocaine, Methamphetamine, Ritalin ○ Block the inactivation of Dopamine (DA), or stimulate release of DA; also act on NE and 5-HT ● Minor Stimulant Drugs - Caffeine, Theophylline ○ Block Adenosine receptors ● Opiates - morphine, heroin, synthetic opiates ○ Stimulate Endogenous Opiate Receptors 1.7 Sensory Processes ● Sensory receptor cells transduce information from the environment ● Types of information transduced ○ Chemical (taste, smell) ○ Mechanical (touch, hearing) ○ Electromagnetic (vision) ● Information about the physical stimulus is…. ○ Encoded in the form of neural activity (frequency and pattern of Action Potentials) ○ Relayed to the brain by specific circuits ● Modalities: ○ Audition (hearing)

○ Gustation (taste) ○ Olfaction (smell) ○ Somatosensation (touch, pain) Psychophysics - the field that relates the physical characteristics of stimuli to their psychological characteristics ● JND - Just Noticeable Difference. The minimal amount of physical change in a stimulus that can be detected ● Absolute Threshold - The minimal intensity of a physical stimulus that can be detected ● Stevens Power Law - The relation between physical intensity and psychological intensity is linear on a log-log plot, but different modalities have different slopes Signal Detection Theory (?) ● Was designed to handle problems with the measurement of thresholds ● Subjects report the presence or absence of an event that may or may not have occurred ● Subjects can be correct or incorrect in different ways Physical Stimulus for Sound ● Pressure changes (alternating waves of compressed and rarified medium; could be in air or water) Relation between Physical and Psychological Characteristics of Sound: ● Amplitude of sound waves - Measured in decibels (dB), is related to the loudness of a sound. ● Frequency of sound waves - Measured in cycles per second (Hertz of Hz), is related to the pitch of the sound Frequency of Sound Waves ● Human Frequency Range: about 20-20,000 Hz ○ Low frequency - low pressure ○ High frequency - high pitch ● Humans typically have hearing loss that is strongest in the higher frequencies as they age ○ Ultrasound - higher frequencies above the human frequency range ○ Infrasound - lower frequencies below the human frequency range The Ear ● Outer Ear: the pinna (what you can see externally) and the ear canal ● Middle Ear: ○ Eardrum - vibrates in synchrony with the sound waves. ○ Ossicles - small bones, the hammer, anvil and stirrup (in latin, the malleus, incus and stapes) They convey vibrations from the eardrum ● Inner Ear: the cochlea (means “snail”); sounds are converted into neural signals in the cochlea, and these signals are conveyed to the brain by the auditory nerve, which is a cranial nerve The Cochlea ● Organ of Corti - Organ for detecting sounds is within the cochlea, which contains several membranes and is filled with fluid ● The Basilar Membrane vibrates in response to the physical stimulus of sound; it contains hair cells which are the sensory receptor cells for hearing.

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Hair cells transduce the physical stimulus into neural signals Hair Cells are Mechanoreceptors. They become excited by the mechanical disturbance of their hairs that occurs when the basilar membrane vibrates Theories of Pitch Perception ● Frequency is the aspect of the physical stimulus most closely related to pitch ● How Different Frequencies of Sound ○ Frequency Principle (or theory) - the frequency of sound is directly related to the frequency of action potentials that are generated ■ Problem - neurons cannot fire fast enough for high frequency sounds… only holds up to about 200 Hz ○ Place Principle (or theory) - different places on the basilar membrane respond to different frequencies of sound. The place principle operates at frequencies higher than 200 Hz ■ With different frequencies of sound ● Different parts of the basilar membrane vibrate maximally ● Different populations of hair cells are activated ● THIS ENCODES THE FREQUENCY OF SOUND Vision ● Physical Stimulus: the visible portion of the electromagnetic spectrum. ● The visible spectrum represents about 70% of the electromagnetic energy on the surface of the earth ○ Wavelength of light is the part of the physical stimulus that is associated with the perception of color ○ Some animals can see in the ultraviolet and infrared ranges The Eye Images are projected onto the retina; the retina contains the rods and cones, which are the receptor cells for vision ● Lens - focuses the light onto the retina ● Retina - contains the rods and cones, which are the receptor cells for vision. They contain pigments, and transduce the visible light into neural signals. The retina also contains other cell types ● Blind Spot or Scotoma - A blind spot is produced because one part of the retina does not contain receptor cells; axons that come to form the optic nerve exit through this spot ● Optic Nerve - contains axons of ganglion cells, which convey visual information to brain ● Fovea - (also called fovea centralis); center of retina, in well functioning eye it should also be the projection zone for the c...