Psych 150 Exam 1 Study Guide PDF

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study guide for the midterm -- has lecture notes, readings, and textbook notes...

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1 PSYCH 150 EXAM 1 STUDY GUIDE

FROM LECTURE NOTES I.

II.

Describing Personality A. Three central components 1. Traits (temperament, character, values) a) What the person is like in general b) Stable/consistent over time c) Internal cause; within the individual 2. States (emotional and mental) a) What the person feels, experiences, thinks b) Situation-specific; short-term; private/covert c) External cause; elicited by stimuli 3. Acts (activities, behavior) a) What the person is doing or trying to do b) Situation-specific; short-term; private/covert c) Internal cause; often intentional B. Three other categories of individual differences (related to personality): physical appearance, social effects and evaluations, talents and skills Defining Personality A. Definition: personality represents those characteristics of the person that describe and account for consistent patterns of thinking, feeling, and behaving B. Five issues personality theories should address: structure, process, growth and development, psychopathology, change C. Measuring personality: basic issues in psychological measurement 1. Measurement = describing phenomena, preferably in a quantitative form 2. Repeated measurement: single-item tests are unreliable a) Principle of aggregation: get many items/observations and average them into one score (1) ex) Dr. John’s chicken oviduct story (2) ex) Dr. John’s amniotic fluid story (test-retest) 3. Multiple perspectives on personality: use different sources, since each one by itself is imperfect a) LOTS data types: life, observer, test, self D. Reliability and generalizability: 1. The extent to which we can generalize one observation to another 2. The extent to which measurements are stable, dependable, and replicable E. Validity 1. The extent to which the measure captures what we think it measures a) Content

2 b) Criterion c) Convergent and divergent F. Correlation and effect size: small correlations are still meaningful! III.

Broader Issues in Measurement A. Three levels of study 1. Human universals: do all people have emotions? Do they have the same basic personality traits? 2. Individual differences: do people differ in extraversion, happiness, etc? 3. Individual uniqueness: ex) Dr. John is the only Cal psych prof who was born in Bielefeld B. Understanding specific individuals -- their unique idiosyncrasies, positing general laws that apply to all people C. Idiographic methods: writing about the individual’s unique idiosyncrasies D. Nomothetic methods: positing general ideas about people

IV.

Sources of Data A. Life data 1. ex) school records, employment records 2. Pros: dependable, accurate data 3. Cons: no emotional input; no rationale behind the data B. Observer data 1. ex) ratings made by others, coded data in a lab 2. Pros: less bias involved 3. Cons: observer bias; the situation may play a role in how people respond; two different observers may have two different interpretations of the data C. Test data 1. ex) experimental tests in a lab, standardized tests 2. Pros: objectivity; cause and effect claims can be made 3. Cons: artificial lab setting can play a role/affect responses; experimenters are involved/may prime the subjects (demand characteristics) D. Self data 1. ex) self-report questionnaire, interviews 2. Pros: large samples; studies can be done easily and cheaply online 3. Cons: correlation does not establish causation; acquiescence and social desirability effects can skew data

V.

Modern-Day Views of the Unconscious A. Modern research examines verbal slips in the lab, found out they are a real thing -- the unconscious really does exist B. Cocktail party phenomenon: we unconsciously monitor the environment for important information (sex, your name, danger); the unconscious diverts attention away from what

3 we are consciously doing; automatic vigilance to negative stimuli even if there is no threat present 1. Automatic vigilance a) Stroop color interference test showed that negative words have slower response times because they create more interference (John + Pratto) 2. Modern dual process models a) Conscious processing takes effort and has limited capacity (system 2), so much information is process in simple ways and does not reach consciousness (system 1) (Kahneman) (1) System 1 (a) Limbic/old (b) Fast, crude (c) Effortless (d) Automatic (2) System 2 (a) Cortex/new (b) Slow, detailed (c) Effortful (d) Controlled (3) Kahneman’s system 1 and 2 relate to Freud’s primary and secondary processes C. Dichotic listening task: listen to 2 different conversations, 1 in each ear, with headphones; at the end you report what you heard in the right ear 1. Left ear = unattended unconscious; right ear = attended conscious 2. Left ear heard either a story about money or trees; right ear heard a story about kids throwing rocks at a “bank” -- people cannot remember anything from the left ear, but which left ear story they heard influenced how they interpreted the right ear story (river bank vs money bank interpretation) a) Implications: the unconscious mind exists and interacts with the conscious and primes it; the unconscious influences how the conscious mind interprets information D. Transference: client develops a close relationship with their therapist; everyday transference can also occur with people who remind us of other people we know 1. ex) when you meet someone, you may like them more because they remind you of a good memory 2. Unconscious preferences: you feel attracted to someone who looks like your mom or dad VI.

Psychodynamic Thinking A. Destructive instincts 1. Instincts can be destructive to a group-living species if expressed indiscriminately. For cooperation within the group, you need trust and predictability

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H. I.

a) “Lone wolves” cannot live without the group, since being part of the group allows access to resources Controlling the instincts 1. Culture/civilization has evolved to control or channel our drives; some drives are deemed unacceptable; culture provides alternative outlets that transform drive energy into productive or socially acceptable behaviors a) ex) culturally sanctioned aggression -- football games are aggressive, but it is not okay to bring a knife to a game Freud’s two big instincts: shared by all animals; evolutionarily based; the instincts are part of our animal heritage 1. Sex: reproduction and pleasure a) Life energy/libido 2. Aggression: survival; competition for resources and territory; access to reproduction a) Death energy/thanatos b) Observed even among families in the form of sibling rivalries Freud said that unconscious processes exist; everyday examples are verbal slips, interpretations of symbols in dreams, attraction to people, flashes of intuition/creativity Freudian levels of consciousness: conscious -> preconscious -> unconscious 1. Conscious thought/primary process/id thinking: unconscious, driven by gut intuition 2. Unconscious thought/secondary process/ego thinking: rational, conscious thought, nonexistent in infants because it must develop over time Psychic determinism (Freud): mental events do not occur by chance -- they always have an underlying cause that can be determined via analysis 1. ex) Freudian slips Two principles that shape behavior 1. Pleasure principle: people prefer fun to pain; “the land of milk and honey” is ideal 2. Reality principle: resources are limited and the real world is frustrating; the great philosopher Mick Jagger said “you can’t always get what you want” a) How do we bring these two principles together? Dynamic equilibrium: there are consequences to our behaviors; we need to consider the short-term and long-term consequences in decision-making Projective tests 1. ex) TAT, Rorschach 2. Characteristics: ambiguous stimuli, free response format, interpretation is hidden from the test-taker 3. Reliability: test-retest and inter-judge agreement are low 4. Validity: unclear content validity; low criterion validity; discriminant validity is not great a) They are not reliable or valid, but they do assess readiness and frequency with which thoughts come to mind

5 J. Structured tests 1. ex) ACL, attachment measures 2. Characteristics: unambiguous stimuli, fixed response format, response interpretation (good content validity) VII.

VIII.

Evaluation of Freud and Erikson’s Theories A. Pioneering of Freud 1. New techniques: free association, dream interpretation, projective tests 2. Rich observations through case study format 3. Complexity of human behavior is accounted for in an encompassing theory 4. The unconscious exists (although we know now that it is not all bad) B. Problems with data and definitions (Freud): 1. Clinical data is collected by the therapist, which causes bias 2. Imprecise and unclear definitions 3. Interpretations are flexible and not falsifiable 4. There are more motives than just sex and aggression a) ex) Harlow: children need contact with their mothers, suggesting social needs during development (1) Malleability: Harlow’s monkeys were able to recover after deprivation through peer contact b) Other needs measured by the TAT (Freud missed these!) (1) Social: trust, intimacy, attachment (2) Competence: autonomy, skills (3) Identity/spiritual: personal meaning in life C. Benefits of Erikson’s theory 1. It includes stages for the entire life cycle 2. It is not all about sex like Freud’s theory Freudian Contemporaries and Neo-Freudians A. Neo-Freudians departed from some Freudian concepts 1. Less focus on sex (social urges focus) 2. Importance of relationships was studied 3. Shift from unconscious to conscious/rationality B. Object relations theory 1. Humans are a deeply social species; relationships are the main source of pleasure and pain a) How the individual relates to other objects (people) -> transference C. Alfred Adler 1. Main human motives: desire to relate positively with others; attain equality or superiority over others a) Rooted in the young child's original experience of weakness, helplessness, and dependency (Freudian oral stage) (1) Acts as an incentive to grow and mature

6 b) Sometimes inferiorities experienced as a child can create an inferiority complex (1) People try to compensate for inferiorities in adulthood (2) Style of life: how you cope with inferiority (normal amount vs overcompensation) 2. Developed birth order theory D. Carl Jung 1. Libido: generalized life energy, not just sexual energy/drive (split from Freud) 2. Developed the concept of extraversion vs introversion 3. Collective unconscious: collective experiences of past generations shared by all humans, residing deep in the mind a) Pre-existing archetypes (babies recognize language and faces from birth) b) Archetypes: we experience the world via symbols (1) ex) shadow: weaknesses we ignore (2) ex) anima: men’s feminine side (3) ex) animus: womens’ masculine side (a) Androgyny/balance of both sides in everyone is healthy E. Karen Horney 1. Sociocultural factors are more important than Freud’s biological factors 2. Basic theme: humans need to cope with anxiety in their lives a) Individuals develop one of 3 neurotic trends: (1) Moving toward others (love) (2) Moving against others (aggression) (3) Moving away from others (withdrawal) 3. Introduced the concept of penis envy being the Freudian male defense against womb and breast envy; men are insecure about not being able to create life IX.

Attachment Theory A. Bowlby: attachment is the basis of love; early experiences shape future emotional attachments 1. First attachment with primary caregiver: mother acts as a secure base 2. Degree to which needs are met influences the child’s later expectations about relationships a) Internal working models: mental representations of how one expects others to respond to them; learning one can trust others (Erikson); are one’s caregivers/attachment figures responsive and reliable? (1) Disengaged/inconsistent parenting -> child feels unlovable (2) Attentive parenting -> child feels worthy of love B. Ainsworth: used the Strange Situation method to determine child attachment style using concrete behaviors in an experimental setting 1. Series of interactions where parent leaves, then comes back to child 2. Observe the child’s reactions to parent’s departure and return, and the child’s amount of exploration

7 a) Attachment styles (1) Secure (a) Results from reliable/responsive parenting (b) Reaction: visibly upset at departure, but happy at return (c) Explores while mother is present; engages with strangers (2) Anxious-ambivalent (a) Results from inconsistent/chaotic parenting (b) Reaction: extremely stressed at departure, resentful/resistant at return or when mother initiates attention; may hit mother when she picks up child (c) Exploration of strangers induces anxiety; child watches mother vigilantly (3) Anxious-avoidant (a) Results from disengaged parenting (b) Reaction: avoids/ignores mother, shows little visible emotion at departure and return, but has a distressed physiological reaction (c) Does not explore much regardless of who is present; treats mother the same as strangers C. Adult attachment: 1. Denver newspaper study showed 3 similar styles a) Secure (55%): (1) Committed relationships, good self-esteem, comfortable asking for support, reflect on childhood in realistic ways b) Anxious/ambivalent (20%): (1) Extremely jealous, unstable self-esteem, obsession with romantic partners, sad when alone, very emotional, worried about others’ views of them c) Avoidant (25%): (1) Less interest in close relationships, keep their distance from others, try to ignore stress by denying it, describe parents as cold or use vague evaluations 2. Kim Bartholomew’s 4-category attachment styles: a) Attachment styles reflect people’s thoughts about their partners and about themselves (a) 2 dimensions: avoidance and anxiety (2) + self, + partner view = secure (3) + self, - partner view = dismissive (4) - self, + partner view = preoccupied (5) - self, - partner view = fearful X.

Rogers’s Phenomenological Theory

8 A. Approach focuses on the phenomena in the mind and meaning of experience; how people view and experience themselves and the world around them B. Phenomenological field: the entire subjective experience; unique to each individual 1. Empathy allows for connections -- put yourself in the shoes of the other person to perceive the world as they view it and understand their experience a) Role of the therapist is to empathize and understand the client C. The self: part of the phenomenological field; the totality of how one sees oneself 1. Ideal self: who you would like to be (not the same as superego!) a) If there is a discrepancy between the real and ideal selves, then you strive to become the ideal self (motivation) 2. State of incongruence: if the self is threatened, we defend ourselves -- difference between inner and outer self causes anxiety and tension a) Denial: pretend the event did not happen; preserve the self-concept b) Distortion: conscious; changes the meaning of the experience 3. Measures of the self and ideal self: a) Q-Sort: sort phrases on cards based on how characteristic they are of you b) ACL: check the adjectives off from a list that describe you c) Schwartz’s values circumplex: ranks one’s values, organized into a circle (1) Stimulation, self-direction, universalism, benevolence, conformity/tradition, security, power, achievement, hedonism 4. Self and self-awareness: how does one know one has a self? a) Sensory sources: double stimulation, body boundaries, mirror recognition b) Cognitive sources: self-esteem, covertness, identity 5. Two kinds of self-domains a) Private: internal aspects (1) Theory of private self-awareness: elicited by introspection; leads to clarification process (clarity of self-knowledge and intensification process (more intense emotional experiences) (a) ex) alcohol lowers private self-awareness b) Public: open/observable aspects (1) Theory of public self-awareness: elicited by being observed or scrutinized; seeing or hearing oneself; attention to self as a social object makes us feel uncomfortable 6. Self-regard: perception and evaluation of our strengths and weaknesses a) Self-perception tasks in the lab: group interaction paradigm is a group negotiation task that makes subjects divide money between the group (1) John + Robins compare self-ratings and observer ratings of performance in group setting (a) 35% overestimate (self-enhancing) (i) Narcissists most likely to overestimate (ii) Worst adjusted people (b) 50% estimate accurately

9 (i)

Best adjusted people, since they maintain congruence (c) 15% underestimate (self-effacing) (i) Shy and depressed people most likely to underestimate (ii) Second best adjusted people (2) Self-consistency phenomenon: we rate ourselves on how we usually act, while others rate us based on only that specific interaction b) Healthy self-regard (1) Self-esteem vs narcissism (a) ex) self-esteem item: “I am a worthwhile person” (b) ex) narcissism item: “I am always better than others” c) Correspondence models of self-esteem (1) James: ratio of achievements / pretensions (goals) (2) Rogers: correspondence of actual self to ideal self (3) Changing self-regard: one has to either change the actual self or the ideal self

FROM TEXTBOOK I.

Chapter 1: Intro to Theory of Personality A. The field of personality measures 3 things: human universals, individual differences, and individual uniqueness B. Personality defined as the characteristics of the person that account for consistent patterns of feeling, thinking, and behaving C. Personality theory should cover: 1. Structure: the basic units of personality a) Traits b) Types c) Personality can be viewed as a system d) Structures can be organized in a hierarchy 2. Process: dynamic aspects of personality, including motives a) Motivational concepts: pleasure/hedonism, growth/self-actualization, cognitive motives b) Models: tension reduction vs incentive models (push vs pull) 3. Growth and development: how we develop into unique individuals a) Nature and nurture (1) Temperament, culture, social class, family, peers 4. Psychopathology and behavior change: how people change and why some don’t change or can’t change

10 D. The self is important for 3 reasons: 1. Awareness of ourselves is an important aspect of our phenomenological field 2. How we feel about ourselves influences our behavior 3. The concept of the self is used to express the organized aspects of human functioning E. Theories of personality serve 2 functions: 1. Organize existing information 2. Foster new knowledge F. Theories of personality can be evaluated on 3 criteria: 1. Is it comprehensive? a) Bandwidth: the range of phenomena covered by a theory b) Fidelity: the specificity or clarity with which a theory relates to phenomena 2. Is it parsimonious? 3. Does its theoretical structure facilitate/generate new research/knowledge? II.

Chapter 2: Data on Personality A. Types of data (LOTS) 1. Life, Observer, Test, Self data B. Fixed vs flexible measures 1. Fixed: procedures in which exactly the same measures are administered to all the participants in a study, and all their scores are computed in the same way a) Nomothetic procedures: fixed measures that are applied to all persons 2. Flexible: more personalized a) Idiographic procedures: flexible assessment techniques that are tailored to the individual (1) ex) case studies C. Observations must be replicable and related to the theoretical concept of interest 1. Reliability: observations can be replicated a) Internal consistency/split-half: different items on the test correlate with one another and reflect a common construct; consistency across items b) Test-retest reliability: if people take the test at two different time points, their two scores correlate with one another; consistency across time c) Parallel test/alternate form: consistency across tests d) Interjudge agreement: consistency across observers 2. Validity (aka construct validity): observations reflect the pheno...