Psychology in Your Life Chapter 1 Summary PDF

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Psychology in Your Life Chapter 1 Summary...

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Chapter 1 Summary MENTAL ACTIVITY AND BEHAVIOR  Psychology is the study of the mind and behavior.  The process of receiving and interpreting information are responsible for your memories, thoughts, and feelings. Behavior refers to all the actions that result from that process.  Both mental activity and behavior are produced by the brain. CRITICAL THINKING  In critical thinking, we evaluate information to make judgements based on the evidence presented.  First step: “What is the claim I am being asked to accept?” as in identifying the statement with skepticism.  Second step: “What evidence is provided to support the claim?” as in identifying the available information relevant to the statement and recognizing when the information isn’t strong enough to be a support. Note: Pseudofacts are information that seem true but are not. Determine the source of the claim. Note: An argument is more persuasive when it acknowledges counter-arguments and shows the weaknesses.  Third step: “Given the evidence, what are the reasonable conclusions about the statement?” as in deciding whether to accept or reject the claim based on the evidence. IMPROVING YOUR LIFE  By working with the information actively, you strengthen the memory traces, which causes you to be more likely to remember the information you learnt in the future.  It is vital to grasp the interrelations between the brain, mental activity, and behavior.  Succeeding in school: 1. Have a growth mindset. 2. Make a schedule. 3. Read the textbook and work with the information actively. 4. Reduce stress when taking tests. 5. Get feedback from your teacher and make changes. INVESTIGATIONS BY PSYCHOLOGISTS  A classic question in psychology is the nature/nurture debate. Both are now recognized to influence psychological traits.  Another classic question in psychology is the mind/body problem. The current view is that the mind emerges from biological activity in the brain. Note: Descartes suggested the idea of dualism (the mind and the body are separate yet intertwined).

CONSCIOUS AND UNCONSCIOUS MIND  Experimental psychology began in 1879 by Wilhelm Wundt (studied human consciousness, sensation, perception, and reactions) - Psychological processes are the outcomes of brain activity. The time it takes to complete a psychological task is called reaction time. - It is assumed that more complex tasks would require more brain activity, which takes longer than simple tasks. - Introspection is Wundt’s method to measure people’s conscious experiences. Participants gave a report on their thoughts about personal experiences of objects.  Structuralism by Edward Titchener (the structure of the conscious mind) - Structuralism is based on the idea that conscious experience can be broken down into parts. - Participants would analyze their personal experiences of the stimulus and the researcher would identify the component (structure) parts of the experience. - The problem is that each person has its own perception of things they are experiencing.  Functionalism by William James (the function of the conscious mind) - Functionalism refers to how the most important function of the mind is in how it is useful to people. - The purpose of the human mind is to help maintain human life overtime by helping people adapt to environmental demands. - The process of natural selection is when species are able to adapt to an environment, they are more likely to survive and reproduce, which passes along traits including the brain and the mind. Lecture: Based on Darwin’s theory of evolution that advantageous physical variations will improve the chances of passing along genes to the next generation.  Psychoanalytic theory by Sigmund Freud (studied psychological disorders and their treatment) - Psychoanalytic theory is used to understand the connections between psychology and physical problems. - Human behavior is determined by unconscious mental processes which are blocked and thus produces psychological discomfort. - The practice of psychoanalysis brings the contents of the participant’s unconscious into their conscious awareness. Lecture: People could experience problems that were coming out of their minds, of the functions of the brain without having to be a physical disease. EXPLORATIONS BY PSYCHOLOGISTS  Gestalt psychology by Max Wertheimer and Wolfgang Köhler (perception is unique and affected by context) - Gestalt psychology sought to understand how people perceive information (sensory input). - The perception of objects is a personal experience. - What a person experiences is different from all the parts of an object.

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Behaviorism by John B. Watson (environmental factors affect behavior) - Behaviorism studies how individuals respond to the environment. - He emphasized the study of observable behaviors and outcomes. - Psychology must investigate internal mental processes, like feelings and thoughts. Humanistic psychology by Abraham Maslow and Carl Rogers (motivation to improve lives) - Humanistic psychology emphasized the basic goodness of people and focused on how people should accept themselves, work on personal goals, and try to live up to their full potential as human beings. - People are free to choose activities that make them feel happy. - Positive psychology emphasizes the quality of relationships and enjoyment from life’s accomplishments. Lecture: Focused on individual needs that need to be fulfilled (hierarchy of needs) and the idea that we have an ideal self (humans impulse toward growth, becoming more fulfilled, and becoming more ideal). Cognitive psychology by George A. Miller (how people think, remember, pay attention, make decisions, and solve problems) - Cognitive psychology investigates mental functions such as intelligence, thinking, language, attention, learning, memory, problem solving, and decision making. - Mental functions are important for understanding behavior. - The field of cognitive neuroscience studies the brain mechanisms that underlie thought, learning, and memory.

TODAY’S INVESTIGATIONS BY PSYCHOLOGISTS  Evolutionary psychology explores how traits are selected to help adaptation in an environment.  Biological psychology studies how biological systems give rise to mental activity and behavior (how the nervous system directs and is influenced by behavior).  Cognitive psychology investigates attention, perception, memory, problem solving, and language.  Developmental psychology examines how psychological factors affect health and wellbeing.  Personality psychology explores how people are affected by others.  Cultural psychology studies how people are influenced by societal rules that dictate behavior (how behavior and mental processes vary across situations, environments, cultures, and time).  Clinical psychology considers the factors that cause psychological disorders and how to treat them.  Educational psychology investigates effectiveness of techniques in teaching and learning.  Industrial psychology examines issues regarding to industry and the workplace.

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Psychology is a knowledge base anchored in objective data collected across time and place by many scientists (many data from many researchers from around the world). Psychology is a set of tools to apply that knowledge to explain common and uncommon experiences. Psychology is the scientific study of behavior and mental processes. - Science is an objective approach to answer questions (start with a question then collect empirical evidence). Based on observable facts, data, and reliable methods. - Behavior is observable, measurable states and actions (anything we can see). The examples are behavioral responses, verbal responses, blood pressure, motor movement, etc. - Mental processes is subjective states (things that are happening inside our brain). The examples are thoughts, sensations, perceptions, memories, dreams, motives, etc. What is the source of knowledge? - Plato (nativism, rationalism) believed that humans possess all knowledge at birth, then we gain access to knowledge as we develop logic and reasoning. - Aristotle (empiricism) said that our experience in the world is where information comes from. - Descartes (dualism) believed that our mind and body are separate, that the mind controls the body. - Locke and Reid (empiricism) said knowledge comes from experience, meaning that we know because we learn. What do psychologists do? - Research 1. Biological or physiological studies the connections between the brain or nervous system and behavior or mental processes. 2. Development studies the various changes that occur between birth and death. 3. Cognitive studies mental processes, such as perception, learning, thinking, and language. 4. Personality studies the similarities, differences, stability, and change in human traits. 5. Social studies interactions between individuals and groups, and how these interactions affect those involved. - Applied psychology 1. Clinical asses, diagnose, and treats people with psychological disorders. 2. Counseling works with people to help them cope with and overcome social, emotional, and psychological challenges. 3. Educational works with students in school settings. 4. Industrial or organizational studies and consults on behavior and environment in the workplace. Why do we study psychology scientifically?

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1. Personal experience is limited and not generalizable (cannot understand human experiences based on our own) 2. Uninformed insights are often erroneous (our brains are slow in thinking critically, if it goes fast then sometimes many things are overlooked) 3. Human perception and understanding are biased (self-serving bias (blinds us to outside information that contradicts to our thought), hindsight bias (when something happens and you already know it's coming), overconfidence (we know more than we do know)) 4. Science of psychology provides informed conclusions based on carefully examined data (tools for collecting data and tools for understanding the data) Psychology (science) vs. pseudopsychology (pseudoscience) - Psychology is based on evidence gathered through scientific research. - Pseudopsychology is focused on satisfying wants (offers simplistic explanations, not based on credible scientific evidence, and often associated with advertising)  

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Thinking like a scientist Begins with a scientific attitude Be curious and seek information Be skeptical about the information you find (but resist cynicism) - don't believe anything you hear but be open to new information Remain open to new information and perspectives (and tolerate uncertainty) Be a critical thinker Guidelines for critical thinking Apply skepticism to all information, arguments, and conclusions Examine your sources (analyze assumptions and biases, and beware hidden agendas) Examine the evidence (how was it collected and what does it show) Avoid emotional reasoning (identify manipulative language) - jargon, designed to make people question themselves so they won't question the person who uses big words Question oversimplification Consider other interpretations (tolerate uncertainty) Thinking like a scientist Also requires examination of our own assumptions, values, and biases. Self awareness is critical.

Scientific method Observe behaviors -> form a theory -> test hypothesis -> analyze and report results -> evaluate and refine theory  Starts with observations 1. Observations of behavior and phenomena 2. Includes already collected data

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A theory organizes observations into a broad explanation 1. Theories can be used to understand and predict behavior 2. Must be testable  A hypothesis is derived from a theory 1. Testable, specific prediction 2. Once tested, a theory will be: A. Accepted if the data supports the hypothesis B. Rejected if data does not support the hypothesis C. Revised if there are adjustments to be made  The hypothesis is tested though one of many (quantitative) research methods 1. Descriptive = describes behavior (does not explain it (why)) A. Case study includes many observations and measurements (focuses on unique subjects) B. Survey collects data from many participants C. Observation: naturalistic (happens in the wild, where the subjects are) and laboratory (setting things up) 2. Correlation = examines the relationship between variables (does not determine causation) A. Positive correlation (variables move to the same direction) B. Negative correlation (variables move to different directions) C. No correlation (no relationships that predict) 3. Experimental = determines causation (how one variable affects another) Compare randomly assigned groups (experimental and control) A. Independent variable = controlled by the scientist B. Dependent variable = measured, gathered the data  After testing, the results are analyzed with statistics Conclusions are drawn about the hypothesis 1. Was it supported or rejected? 2. What did the data tell us?  After analyzing the results, the original theory is reevaluated and refined 1. New questions asked 2. New hypothesis tested  Findings are reported 1. Why report findings? 2. Where are findings reported? 

Ethical issues in psychological research 1. Rights to privacy (to protect the identity of the people who agree to participate) 2. Informed consent (inform about the study, what to expect, the risks, possible benefits)  Use of deception (is revealed at the end)  Right to withdraw 3. Animal use (being treated well, living in a pristine condition, maximizing well being)

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Animals are used in studies that cannot be done on humans for ethical or practical reasons All animals research is carefully monitored by federal and institutional animal care committees...