Quiz 1 - Lecture Notes PDF

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Human geography is about recognizing and understanding the interdependence among places and regions without losing sight of the uniqueness of each specific place o Places = specific geographic setting with distinctive physical, social and cultural attributes o Regions = territories that encompass many places, all or most of which share attributes different from the attributes of places elsewhere Human Geography = the study of the spatial organization of human activity and people’s relationships with their environments o Like agricultural production and food security, population change, ecology of human diseases, resource management, pollution etc. Physical Geography = Earth’s natural processes and their outcomes like climate, weather patterns, soil formation and plant and animal ecology Regional Geography = unique combinations of environmental and human factors produce territories with distinctive landscapes and cultural attributes Places: o A physical setting for human activity o Dynamic (usually) o Shaping human values, attitudes and behaviours o Influencing well-being, opportunities and future lives  Smaller town = limited job opportunities and lifestyle options  Bigger town = lots of job opportunities Place Meaning:  like people’s memory, ordinary places can have special meaning for some people o Subjective o Socially constructed  given different meanings by different groups for different purposes o Tied to personal identity; when meaning is so strong  e.g. your neighborhood has a lot of personal meaning but outsider’s perspective is different o Unique places:  Can lead to innovation  Unique ways of life, cultural practices & business o Can change over time:  Organically  Intentional actions  e.g. establishing a “nuclear-free” zone  to challenge trends and change other communities Geography Tools & Methods o Spatially-based data o Spatial comparisons  “poverty in Region A vs. poverty in region B” o Visual representation  E.g. Maps o Geomatics  Remote sensing  GIS: Geo-information systems  GPS: Global positioning satellite

30 satellites that orbit Earth  can calculate precise position in any part of the world (increase accuracy and efficiency of collecting spatial data) LIDAR: Light detection and ranging DEM: Digital elevation modelling 

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Maps 101 o Tool:    

Locate regions, features & boundaries Analyze distribution, patterns and relationships Features: Landforms, cultures, cities Reveal visible ‘invisible’ patterns/features  Safety maps (example) o Crime/gang maps o ‘safe land’ maps Map “Projection” o Mapping decisions to:  Emphasize certain features  De-emphasize or ignore others o “Unique” projections = Dymaxion map projection Mapping Spatial Distributions: Common Map Types o Thematic Maps  Show the distribution, flow or connection of one or more characteristics  E.g. Isoline maps o Dot or “Point Pattern” Map  Each incident is displayed as a dot  Can show whether a distribution is dispersed or clustered o Choropleth Maps  Show the quantity or type of phenomena by area o “safe land” map  Mozambique  2 decades civil war  2-3 million land mines  70% of country  Demining & mapping successes  1995 – 660 killed/year  2000 – 25 killed/year  2015 – 0 killed/year Modern Mapping: “Citizen Cartography” o Geo-wiki o Open street map o Google map maker o Mental maps GIS: Benefits vs. Traditional mapping o “Update-ability”, speed automation o Precision & accessibility

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o Citizen contribution o Cost o Customization o Incorporates complexity: hardcopy maps o Multi-scalar (create maps of multiple scales o Data linked to location Regional Analysis o Key geographic tradition (“Regional Geography”)  Classification of places based on shared characteristics  Coherence from shared characteristics  Sense of place derives from characteristics  E.g. GTA “Entertainment District” o Problems = no obvious borders or walls around the region Use Attributes to define Regions o Attribute = Distinguishing features of a region  Physical  Terrain  Climate  Resources  Soils  Vegetation & Wildlife  Cultural  Cultural practices  Architecture Businesses  Religious structures  Human landscape modifications Regional Analysis: Core/Domain/Sphere Model o Core: all attributes present o Domain: most attributes present o Sphere: some attributes present Defining a Region using the Core/Domain/Sphere model o Step 1: which attributes define “the region”? o Step 2: gather spatial data on those attributes o Step 3: map the core, domain and sphere areas  Core: 75-100% of attributes are present  Domain: 50-74% of attributes are present  Sphere: 25-49% of attributes are present Functional Region o CBD  Central business district; the function is “business”  is to conduct business What if a region is defined by perceptions only? (gang territory) o “Crips” vs. “Blood” territory

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Landscape(s) o Ordinary Landscapes (‘Vernacular’)  Everyday: humans  landscapes; landscapes  humans  Influences perceptions, values, behaviours  Dynamic (change over time) o Symbolic Landscapes  Values/Aspirations  National identity  Often protected ‘as is’ Regional Analysis: Sense of Place o Unique attributes o Lived experiences o Attachment “Place” attachment (geographic attachment)  spending a year abroad; missing local sports, food and climate o Can create conflict; building pipelines in land that belongs to older generation natives o Common geographic attachments:  Culture  “Way of life”  Sports teams  Cuisine  Landscape & Landmarks  Regional/National identity Spatial Analysis  the arrangement as points, lines, areas or surfaces on a map o Location, distance, space, accessibility and spatial interaction = 5 key concepts o Space  can be measured in absolute, relative and cognitive (like location and distance)  Topological space = defined as connections between particular points in space (connectivity between locations)  E.g. TTC Transit Map  Cognitive space = defined and measured in terms of people’s values, feelings, beliefs, and perceptions about places and regions o Accessibility  the opportunity for contact or interaction from a given point or location in relation to other locations  nearness o Spatial Interaction  Movement and interconnections between places  Influenced by accessibility (distance/ease of travel between places)  Mode of travel is changing  most destinations use airplanes  Spatial Interaction: movement between 2 or more places:  People  Ideas  Commodities  Diseases  What influences human use of space?  Perceptions of place

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o Decision-making for migration o Marketing  Distance & perceptions of distance o Reducing “distance decay”  Influences over use of space:  Cognitive (awareness)  Cultural tendencies  Money $  Transportation modes & routes  Distance (both absolute and perceived) o Absolute = physical measure that we can count in kilometres o Relative = measured in terms of time, effort or cost o Mental maps  Distance Decay: “The First law of Geography”  “Everything is related to everything else, but near things are more related than distant things”  Cognitive distance = distance that people perceive to exist in a given situation  based on people’s personal judgements about the degree of spatial separation between points  Friction of distance = distance exerts a “force” on humans o Reflection of the time and cost of overcoming distance o Farther = the more force acts on you to not go o Different travel modes exert different “friction”  E.g. walking to Vancouver vs. flying  E.g. Millau Viaduct  built a bridge; eliminate 12-15 min of travel through the town during peak times  Distance-decay function  rate at which a particular activity diminishes with increasing distance  Utility = the utility of a specific place or location is its usefulness to a particular person or group o Emphasis may be on cost, ease of mobility etc. o Maximize the net utility of location Why are geographers interested in spatial interaction? o Understanding what “controls” interaction allows us to influence interaction to our benefit  Increase:  E.g. marketing (more business to a store)  Decrease:  Spread of disease, non-essential car travel  Change the type of interaction  E.g. car commuters  pubic transit  Change the timing of the interaction  E.g. “congestion pricing” for downtown core o Reducing friction of distance  UW Website

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 Distance has less influence if you have positive impressions of the place  Attractive place; no winter scenes Why does spatial interaction occur? o Difference between places (supply/demand)  Resources  Labour & employment  Opportunities (products, services, etc)  Costs  Reputation  Perceptions: Amenity, atmosphere, safety Explaining spatial interaction o Edward Ullman (1912-1976) Geographer  3 factors determine interaction & flow  1. Complementarity o Supply in one place & demand in another  E.g. going to somewhere hot in the winter time o Desire o Purchasing power o transportation  Transferability o Acceptable cost  cost of moving items  costs of moving a product from one place to another is too expensive = cannot be transferable o Acceptable timing  new technologies or extended infrastructures = alter transport costs  Intervening opportunity o Alternative origins/destinations  e.g. winter vacation cheaper for florida than to go to Mexico o (all things being equal) something available at a closer destination usually reduces demand at further destination Interaction & Movement bias o Movement bias: controls on flows  Distance  Time and cost  Direction (e.g. village  city)  “network”  Road patterns  Air travel routes  Railway lines  Understanding movement bias allows more sophisticated movement predictions and control Mental Maps  also known as cognitive images; places and regions compiled from their own knowledge, experiences, and impressions o Reveal:

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 Knowledge  Priorities  Psychology  Lack of awareness  Incorrect knowledge Mental maps: Uses o Identifying  Service gaps (e.g. policing, health, transportation)  Awareness gaps (e.g. services, opportunities, retail)  “invisible” features (e.g. personal safety concerns, gang territory, sacred land)  Differences between individuals (e.g. locals vs. newcomers)  Personal attributes Absolute & Relative Location o Absolute location:  Precise coordinates  Latitude & Longitude o Latitude = angular distance of a point on earth’s surface measured in degrees, minutes and seconds north or south of the equator (parallel to equator) o Longitude = angular distance of a point on earth’s surface measured in degrees, minutes and seconds east or west from the prime meridian  Township, range & section  Street addresses o Relative location:  Position relative to other features o Nominal location:  Names given to places Spatial Interaction o Spatial Diffusion  can be mixed  Expansion Diffusion (Contagious Diffusion)  Proximate carriers/agents o E.g. spread of a contagious disease  Hierarchical Diffusion (Cascade Diffusion)  can spread more quickly than expansion  Bypasses in-between places  Uses a hierarchical structure to diffuse something  E.g. fashion trends, or a virus from one region to other parts of the world  Relocation Diffusion  Someone/something physically changes locations (e.g. a person emigrates to another country)  Enhanced by globalization

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Mobility versus Migration o Mobility = ability to move from one place to another  Cyclical = people moving back and forth temporarily  Short-med term = daily or seasonal commute  Longer term = university  Permanent = move from one place to another with no intention of returning o Migration = “permanent” relocation (more or less)  Usually long-distance  Can be domestic/internal, or international Cyclical/temporary mobility vs. Migration o Types of human spatial behavior  Mobility = applies to all types of spatial movement  Temporary vs. Migration  Temporary: short term movement & use of space (e.g. work, studies, vacation, etc)  Migration: longer-term or permanent commitment (e.g. full-time employment, buying a house) Migration o Huge topic of interest to geographers  Behavioural geography  Causes and effects  Implications on societies o Scales  Continental  Country to country  Regional (within a country)  Local (e.g. village to city) Measuring Migration o Gross migration = total # of people that leave & enter a country  Out-migration = total # of people who leave  In-migration = total # of people who arrive in the country o Net Migration = the difference (enter – leave)  E.g. 250,000 in migrants – 50,000 out migrants = 200,000 net migrants to the region Categorizing Migration o Different ways to categorize  Motivation  Individual vs collective choice  Voluntary migration  Involuntary (forced) migration  Degree of choice (freedom) to migrate  Controls (why do people migrate?)  Distance & distance decay  Intervening opportunities

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 Perceptions vs. “Reality”  Push & Pull factors Perception & Migration o Spatial actions and decisions often based on perceptions, not “facts” o Photographic images  Mass media  Word of mouth o Hard to change once formed o Perception: effect on distance  Positive: reduces effects  Negative: increase effects Degree of Choice o Voluntary  Economic migrants o Reluctant  Conflict (persecution)  “Ethnic cleansing”  Internal relocation  Environmental refugees o Forced/involuntary:  War  Slavery  Forcible repatriation  Some natural disasters Voluntary Migration o Migration due to what are primarily voluntary motivations (often economic)  Work  Accompany family members  Education  Business/investment  Land o Non-permanent (work)  permanent (emigration) o Both internal & international o Transnational migrant: someone who does not sever ties with home country when they migrate to another country Internal Voluntary Migration o Massive economic movements worldwide o Most countries undergo regional “boom” or development cycles o Migrants respond  boom area o Generally younger migrants (affects demographics) o Strong rural  urban bias o “Amenity migrants” ?? Forced (involuntary) Migration o International refugees/migrants

 One country  another Internally-displaced people (IDPs)  Within a country’s borders o Causes?  War/conflict  Repatriation (reverse migration)  Eco-migration/climate change  Natural hazards Other causes: Human Trafficking o Forced  recruitment, transportation, transfer of persons by threat or use of force  600,000 – 800,000 per year  Child Soldiers (both internal and international forced migration)  300,000 children o Voluntary  “People Smuggling”  Illegally transporting people because of immigration laws Internal Forced Migrants o Political decisions to relocate populations  Regional development  Racial persecution  Political ideology o China’s Cultural Revolution (1960s/1970s)  Forcible rural relocation of 10-17 million youth “Refugees” vs “Migrants” o Refugee = A person living outside of his or her own country who cannot return home because of fear of injury or persecution o Being granted “refugee” status immediately confers rights:  Safe asylum  Same basic rights as a resident  Economic and social rights  Right to “non-refoulement”  Refugees may not be returned to a country in which they would be in likely danger of persecution based on “race, religion, nationality, membership of a particular social group or political opinion Consequences of Migration o Demographic Consequences  Migration can change the size, age composition, and ethnic composition of a population (+/-) o Economic Consequences  Positive or negative  Do migrants help or hurt a country? o Social Consequences  Can lead to cultural assimilation or cultural conflict  Changes conditions in both source & receiving countries o

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Demographic Data o Census:  Paper-based  Canadian long form vs. short form (from 95% completed to 65% completed)  Online  Biometric: e.g. India (census  photo/fingerprints  ID) o Intercensal Estimates o Interlinked vital records  Health care, church, school, marriage/divorce etc. Population Distribution: Density o Crude Density  Divide: a country’s population by its total land area  E.g. people/km2 o Nutritional (ecological) Density  Divide: a country’s population by its arable land area  People/km2 of farmland Population Pyramids (age/sex pyramids) o Able to identify changes in the age and sex composition of populations over time  Reveals the implications of major events (war, violence, diseases) o Able to assess the potential impacts that growing or declining populations might have o Widen at bottom = rapid growth  countries with high birth rates and declining death rates o What does it tell us?  for poorer countries (rapid growth)  Resources are stretched = limit to provide schooling, nutrition and health care for growing # of children  When they reach working age = need additional jobs to be created to support them and family  Young adults  start having children = further population expansion o For more developed countries = high level of wealth  greater capacity to provide health care, education and nutrition (slow to no growth) Terminology o Crude birth rate (CBR) = births per 1000 persons per year o Crude death rate (CDR) = deaths per 1000 persons per year o Rate of Natural Increase (RNI)  RNI = CBR – CDR  Does not include immigration o Rate of Population Growth  Includes net immigration o Doubling Time  The number of years it takes for a population to double in size CBR and CDR tells us about a country o High CBR:  Young population  Low average education levels

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 Underemployment: especially women  Low availability of birth control  Generally… a “lesser developed country”/region. o High CDR:  Poor healthcare system  Lack of Gov’t funding/investment in health  Poor parents (majority)  Generally… a “lesser developed country”/region (or aging population) o High RNI: Generally… a “lesser developed country”/region. Other population dataclues about country’s level of development o Total Fertility Rate (TFT):  average number of children a woman (15-49) will have  Higher numbers  lesser developed countries o Infant mortality rate:  average # of deaths (...