Resumme - Zusammenfassung Introduction to Linguistics I: English Morphosyntax  PDF

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Lecture 1. What is linguistics 1. Linguistics is descriptive ‫وصفي‬, not prescriptive ‫الزامي‬. 2. The scope of linguistic ‫مجال اللغويات‬ - Phonetics：the study of human speech sounds - Phonology：speech sounds as they function as parts of language systems - Morphosyntax：morphology- the shape of the word; syntax- the arrangment of words in sentences - Semantics：how exactly words and sentences come to ‘mean’ sth to us - Pragmatics：how speakers use language in ways which cannot be predicted from linguistic knowledge alone - Sociolinguistics ：the study of language and society 3. Synchrony & Diachrony synchronic： the study of language at given point of time diachronic (or ‘historical’) linguistics ：the study of linguistic development through time Exercise . A( The comparison of Old English and Middle English is an example of diachronic linguistics.true B( The detailed study of Middle English is an Example of diachronic linguistics. false C( The comparison of Middle English and Modern English is an example ok synchronic linguistigs. true 4. Comparison Linguistic: contrastive; typology Constrative is a close comparison of 2 or 3 language such as comparing in grammer or words etc. Typology is a wide comparison of language or comparing of 2 language in general as in example Exercise . A the comparison of English and Spanish is an example of linguistic typology. false 5. Linguistics & Linguist ：linguistics is the study of language. Linguist is the a person who studies linguistics

Lecture 2. Language form, function and communication 1. Sign:meaning and form ↙ symbol

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Icon: the situation it signifies. are signs where meaning is based on the similarity of appearances. Symbol: no inherent logical connection between the form and the meaning, connection is arbitrary . are signs where meaning is not based on the similarity of appearances. 2_ Language is a tool for communication, communication is part of social interaction 3_Human communication is more powerful than animal communication, because the inventories of signs are more extensive

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the meanings of signs are more specific and substantial; this includes the property of displacement humans can use language creatively

Lecture 3: Sounds and sound systems 1. Vowels & Consonants - Vowel: In order to produce vowels we position our speech organs in certain specified ways, but we do not block the airstream by causing friction or complete closure. - Consonants: Consonants are produced by blocking the airstream in some way. 2.

From”bilabial” to “glottal” refer to the place of articulation From “plosive” to “lateral approximant” refer to the manner of articulation

For consonants, the crucial three dimensions are: the place of articulation / the manner of articulation / voicing IPA: the International Phonetic Alphabet 4. Phonemes & Minimal Pairs Phoneme: smallest unit of speech distinguishing one word or one element from another, as the element p in ,,tap, which separates that word from ,,tab, and ,,tan, Minimal pairs: pairs of words as ,,pin, and ,,bin, which differ only by one sound in the same position in each word . - differ by only a single phoneme in the same position - have different meanings EXERCISE (a) describe along which dimension(s) the two sounds differ from each other, using the IPA chart provided in the reading (b) provide a minimal pair of words which shows that the two sounds are, in fact, phonemes in English (and not just realisational variants of the same phoneme). (1) /s/, /ʃ/ The /s/ sound is an Alveolar fricative voiceless and the /ʃ/ sound is a Postalveolar fricative voiceless Minimal pair as in sea and she

Lecture 4: The structure of words 1. Morpheme - the smallest meaningful units in a language. the word unladylike has 3 morphemes and 4 syllables. Un-not. Lady- female. Like- having the characteristics of,, Distinction between ‘phoneme’ and ‘morpheme’: - Phonemes: (the smallest units) change meanings - Example: chairs - ‘s’ is both phoneme and morpheme; sit - ‘s’ is only morpheme Morphemes have a meaning and a form, is a symbol. Therefore they are linguistic signs in de Saussure’s sense. For example: -ness – ‘the state/property of being X’ ; happy – ‘displaying a positive state of mind’ -

Guitar: only one morpheme Gui + tar ❌ Guitarist: guitar + ist ✔ Fist: f + ist ❌

Sometimes there is no simple one-to-one correspondence between form and meaning in complex words: a. cranberry b. strawberry c. blackberry d. blueberry 【a. as one morpheme】 - Monomorphemic (simple words): contain exactly one (of course free) morpheme

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Polymorphemic (complex) words: contain two or more morphemes Unique Morphemes: like ”cran-” from “cranberry”, not occur independently in English, and also despite the fact that it occurs in only one English word, we are able to ascribe a meaning to it and thus to regard it as a morpheme. (see the homework assignment 6 review exercise 3.)

Irregular plural forms: tooth - teeth; goose - geese; mouse - mice →adding a morpheme is not necessarily equivalent to adding some form: Vowel alternation（plural meaning by a change in the vowel: mouse - mice) / Zero forms（the form of this plural morpheme is mit marked overtly: sheep） Types of Morphemes: - Free morphemes: can occur on their own, without any other morphemes attached to them. Such as “mother” - Bound morphemes: appear only in combination with other, usually free, morphemes. With some exceptions, which we can ignore here, bound morphemes are affixes. 【Affixes (prefixes and suffixes) are attached to bases. There is also “infix” see the homework assignment 4】such as “un-” and “-ment” - Base and derivative: in a combination of a free and a bound morpheme the free morpheme is called the base and the resulting word is called derivative. Such as “mother-” of “motherland” is base and the whole word “motherland” if derivative. - Roots: a base that cannot be segmented any further is called root, the core elements of words. Exam Q . Identify all morphemes in the word untouchables and determine if they are free or bound, inflectional or dervitional. 2. Tree Diagram Complex words have an internal, hierarchical structure, which can be made visible by way of a tree diagram:

3. Allomorphs it is a different form of morpheme such as the phonetic,,s, - The same morpheme is realised through different forms. - Example: the morpheme “a” in the phrases like “a cup”, “an arm” and “ ‘a’ cup, not ‘the’ cup “ the forms are different like [ə] ; [ən] ; [ei]

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The morpheme {INDEFINITE ARTICLE}, for instance, has three allomorphs. In general, allomorphs are phonological realizations of an abstract category.

4. Three Conditionings - Phonological conditioning: the distribution of allomorphs is governed by the sound structure - Lexical conditioning: the lexical form learned separately by particular word, such as the plural form of each of the word - Morphological conditioning: such as bound morphemes are responsible for the alternation Examples: - Phonological conditioning a) Panda[z] don’t look like cat[s] or tortois[iz]. b) Bee[z] make [zzz], snake[s] make [sss] and bass[iz] in electronic music make [iz iz iz] - Lexical conditioning a) Mice normally don’t eat sheep or fish. - Morphological conditioning a) His wi[v]es don’t know each other. b) His wi[f]e’s doctoral degree made him envious. c) Do you use an electri[k] shaver? d) I am worried about our electri[s]ity costs.

Lecture 5: Morphological Processes 1. Lexeme & Word Form - Word s an abstract unit in the vocabulary of a language - Lexemes are indicated by means of small capitals, e.g. BAKE - The different grammatically specified forms of a given lexeme are called word-form or grammatical words→Word forms are the grammatically conditioned variants of a lexeme.

2. Inflection and derivation - Affixes are used to encode grammatical information and thus to create different wordforms of the same lexeme, such affixes are called inflectional, the morphological expression of grammatical information and categories is termed inflection - Affixes that serve to create new lexemes are called derivational, and the creation of new lexemes by affixation is called derivation. - Inflectional affixes a) are always suffixes in English b) have consistently the same grammatical function in every word they attach to c) attach to (almost) every word of a given class d) do not change the word class of the base - Derivational affixes a) can be suffixes and prefixes

b) can have different meanings in different words c) do not attach to all members of a certain word class d) can change the word class of the base

Derivation, part of word formation:

Exercise . determine if these underlined morphemes are inflectional and derivational with Your Justification Remained Darkness dreawing 3. Compounding - The process of combining two or more words to form a new word - English compounds are thus typically stressed on the left-hand element, and the right-hand element contributes typically the main information - English has compound verbs, adjectives, adverbs and nouns, the latter being the most frequent - The head of the compound: a semantically and grammatically more important element - A modifier: an element that specifies or provides additional information on the head - E.G. keyboard, blackbird, dark-blue, red-hot, over-night, underestimate, freeze-dry 4. Conversion - The words are derived from the words by means of changing the word class, without any change in form (often called ‘zero-derivation’), such as “a cage”→”to cage”; “to coach”→“a couch”; “clear”→”to clear” 5. Shortening - In the process new items are formed by deleting linguistic material instead of adding it, including clippings, blends and abbreviation. Clippings - The words on the right are created by means of deleting a part id the base word called truncation, also called clippings. Such as: advertisement→ad - Most clippings are monosyllabic or disyllabic words, and usually the first part of the base survive in the clipping, which also are stressed syllable Blends - Deleting parts of both bases or of only one base ,and combing the remaining parts into a new word, such words are called blends. - Blending differs from compounding in that part of one or both of the source bases is dropped. Such as: brunch, smog, morphonology Abbreviation

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Words formed by combining only the initial letters of multi-word combinations, there are two types of abbreviation: initialisms and acronyms - Initialisms: the initial letters are combined and pronounced as a sequence of letter. Such as: DNA, BBC, EU, UK, PDF - Acronyms: are pronounced as regular words. Such as: NASA, NATO, TOEFL Exam Q. give an example to those word formation process Compounding Affixation Acronym Blending

Lecture 6: Basic concepts of syntax 1. Three basic organising principles in syntax - Sentences have parts, which may themselves have parts. - The parts of sentences belong to a limited range of types. - The parts have specific roles or functions within the larger parts they belong to. 2. Sentence parts: Constituent structure Sentences ↑ Clauses ↑ Phrases ↑ Words ↑ Morphemes Sentence is the largest unit of syntax. Word is smallest unit. A phrase is a group of related words. ex My mom. A clause is a group of related words that contains both a subject and a verb. There are 2 kinds of clauses : An Independent clause ,, express a complete thought, so it can stand by itself Dependent clause,,, also knowen as a Subordinate clause, express only a part of thought, so it can not stand alone . it has a subject anda verb but it need to be connected to independent claus . content clause or noun clause it acts as a nounen in a sentence. ex . whatever we study . Relative clause or it is knowen as adjective clause wich acts as adjective ina sentence. ex. I saw a child who was crying A sentence is an independent clause that mayor may not convey a complete thought Sentences are : Simple Compound Complex Compound-complex Simple ..,, contains 1 independent clause . ex. Mary went to the store. Compond,,,, contains 2 independent clauses that usually are joind in one of 2 ways A .. a coma and coordinating conjunction…,,,,and, but, or, for, so , yet

Ex. Mary went to the store, and she bought some bread. B ,,, A semicolon. Ex. Mary went to the store; she bought some bread. Complex..,,, sentences contains 1 independent clause and 1 or more dependent clause Ex. Mary went to the store because she needed bread. Compaund-complex,,, contains 2 independent clauses and at least 1 dependent clause Ex. Mary went to the store, and she bought some bread that she needed 2 main verbs and…. -Sentences can be complex and contain more than one ‘sentence-like’ construction, we call these clauses. - Sentences consisting of one clause only are called ‘simple sentences’, whereas sentences that consist of two or more clauses are called ‘complex sentences’. - Simple Clause: one main verb, one event 3. Identifying syntactic categories 【word class(lexical category) and phrasal category】 - Nouns name individuals or objects (director, actress, candy, microphone) - Verbs name actions (run, jump), states (remain, be) and sensations (feel, hear) - Adjectives name properties (tall, beautiful, polite) - Words are categorized according to their compatibility with various types of inflectional affixes - Word classes fit into specific slots in the sentence - Commonly recognised categories: noun phrase(NP); verb phrase(VP); adjective phrase(AP); adverb phrase(AdvP); prepositional phrase(PP) THIS PART FURTHER IN NEXT LECTURE, BASEMENT OF TREE DIAGRAM 4. Syntactic functions - ‘Syntactic functions’ are the grammatical roles that phrases play in a clause/sentence. Ex. A bird hit the car. The phrases ,, a bird, and the car belong to the same category, NP. Buttheyhave different functions , subject and object Another ex . Bob suffered a hart attack. Bob is subject but it is not an agent,, or a doer. He is not doing…. 5. Syntagmatic and paradigmatic relations - Words make part of both syntagmatic and paradigmatic relations - Words enter a syntagmatic relation when they combine with other words to form larger units such as phrases, clauses and sentences. - Words enter a paradigmatic relation when they share a certain category like ‘noun’ or ‘verb’ with other words. Exam Q. The older sisters of my best frien were injured in a car accident last Wednesdays - why the older sister of my best friend a phrase and not a clause,,,,no verb

-How many clauses dose this sentence have . and is it a simple or a complex sentence -What kind of phrase,, NP,VP,PP,etc,, , the older sister ,, have and why . it is NP because noun here is the major element and have meaning where as old the minor element - on the basis of what criteria can the word sisters be identified as a noun….it is a person and persons are nouns, it is in plural -the phrase the older sisters of my best friends has a syntactic function of subject . What would be the problem if we defined subject in semantic rather than grammatical terms .. The meaning would be misleading because the subject in this sentence is not a doer. Exam. Q. identify the clauses and its type …. And by counting verbs zou are going to know how many clauses are there . zou will get long sentences.

⬦Lecture 7: The word classes of English I 1. Open and closed word class - Open class: it is easy to add new members to an open class. Open classes contain content words (or ‘autosemantic words’). Such as: N, V, A, Adv (from point 2 to 5) - Closed class: it is not easy to add new members to a closed class. Closed classes contain function words (or ‘synsemantic words’). Such as: D, Pro, P, Conj, Aux (from point 6 to 9)

2. Nouns (see the material page 4) - Nouns have characteristic derivational suffixes: -er, -ist, -ism, -ion, -ation, -ity, -hood, -ence, -ness… - Concrete and abstract nouns: a) Nouns typically refer to physical things (individuals, objects, places, substances). b) Nouns also refer to events, states, activities, processes, times, occasions etc. - Count and mass nouns: a) Things that can be counted b) substances, qualities and the like, which cannot be counted. (Collective nouns are countable, but refer to groups of things or individuals.)

3. Verbs (see the material page 5) - Verbs express actions, achievements, states, activities and others, which can be physical, mental, perceptual, social etc. - Main verbs can either occur on their own, or follow one or more auxiliary verbs - Verbs may contain derivational suffixes like -ize/ise or -ify. Most verbs don’t, however. - Each verb has up to five different inflectional forms, e.g. walk, walks, walked, walking, (has) walked

4. Adjectives (A or Adj) (see the material page 6) - Predicative Adj: constitute an AP after a handful of full verbs, predicate sth about the preceding noun. e.g. Managers are AP[rich]. - Attributive Adj: constitute an AP in front of nouns (or between a determiner and a noun), attributes a certain quality to the noun. e.g. NP[a AP[rich] manager] - Adjective phrases can be expanded by adverbs: a very rich manager - Apart from a number of derivational affixes forming adjectives (e.g. -al), the inflectional property that unites many (but not all!) adjectives is that they are gradable, and can thus be marked morphologically for comparative and superlative form: rich, richer, richest（with more than 2 syllables don ont take these suffixes）

- Adjectives specify some quality or property attributed to nouns 5. Adverb (see the material page 7) - circumstance adverbs:info of ,, time, place, manner,etc the core of the sentence, i.e. the verb and its objects (if there are any) → Yesterday, they immediately served me. - degree adverbs: an adjective, i.e. they are part of an adjective phrase → The optional texts are extremely helpful and easily accessible. They modify adjectives ,, ex. Very impotant -

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sentence adverbs:‫ تطبق على الجملة كاملة‬an entire sentence, expressing an attitude towards the sentence, or connect the sentence to another one → Fortunately, the train was not delayed. Degree adverbs precede the adjective and cannot be separated from it. Sentence adverbs typically stand at the beginning or the end of a sentence. Circumstance adverbs are more complicated. A clear indicator of adverb hood is the suffix -ly, which derives adverbs from adjectives

6. Determiners - Determiners are words that introduce noun phrases and function as modifiers of nouns

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Determiner subclasses

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Articles: indefinite; definite

Dog bit man, false ….the dog bit a man. true

7. Pronouns - Pronouns are words that appear in the place of nouns, substituting for them. Unlike nouns, they do not combine with determiners.

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Pronoun subclasses

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8. Prepositions - Prepositions express relationships of possession, place, time, and many other relational meanings - What follows prepositions is always a noun phrase, the combination P + NP constitutes a preposition phrase (PP)

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9. Conjunctions - Conjunctions link clauses - Subordinating conjunctions: introduce clauses that cannot appear on their own but rather depend on another clause in order to be grammatically correct and semantically complete: [When Watson entered the room] - Coordinating conjunctions: introduce clauses that are the same ‘rank’ as the preceding clause to which they are linked: [and he went home with her]

Exam Q. determine the lexical category, word classes ,, of each item underlined. Full answer not just say it is adjctive or adverb,,,,,

Lecture 8: Lexical Categories II (refer back to lecture 7 point 3: Verbs) 1. The inflectional forms of English main verbs (see the homework assignment and exercises on PPT) - Each verb has up to five different inflectional forms with various grammatical functions: V-0, V-s, V-ed, V-ing, V-en.

2. V-0 form ...