Russian Reform Movement (1815) PDF

Preview

Summary

The unification movement of Germany and Italy was discussed in the previous unit. We'll talk about Russia's history during the year 1815 in this unit. Here, we'll talk about Russia's socioeconomic conditions in the nineteenth century. The current political situation in Russia will also be discussed....

Description

RUSSIAN REFORM MOVEMENT (1815) INTRODUCTION

The unification movement of Germany and Italy was discussed in the previous unit. We'll talk about Russia's history during the year 1815 in this unit. Here, we'll talk about Russia's socioeconomic conditions in the nineteenth century. The current political situation in Russia will also be discussed. This unit also includes information about Czar Alexander II and the reforms he instituted in Russia. This unit will also cover the emancipation of serfs as well as some of Alexander II's other reforms.

RUSSIA IN 1815 Despite her rise as a major European power following Napoleon Bonaparte's defeat in Moscow, Russia remained socially and economically backward. Her political institutions, too, had a mediaeval feel to them.

Social Condition

Russian society was divided into two classes: nobles and serfs. There were also clerical and bourgeoisie classes, but they were minor in comparison. In Russia, as in France before the Revolution of 1789, social anarchy reigned supreme. The nobles were not required to perform any duties for the government, but they did enjoy the benefits that came with it. With an iron rod, they ruled over the serfs. The plight of the peasants was appalling. The Serfs lived in deplorable circumstances and received no protection from the state against the nobles' oppression. Without rhyme or reason, they were flogged, sold, and sent to Siberia, or even killed. Czar Nicholas I took steps to improve the serfs' lot in life.

Political Condition

Individuals in Russia lacked any kind of political standing. There were no representative institutions in place, and citizens had no say in political decisions. They didn't have any freedom of expression. The press was subjected to a number of restrictions. Even the judicial system lacked independence. The Czar ruled the country with the assistance of a Council of Ministers that he appointed and who were solely responsible to him. The Czar's words became the law of the land. Ukases were the name for such laws. The Imperial Police assisted the Czar in administering the provinces. A number of officials appointed by the Czar were particularly cruel to the people.

Alexander I (1801-25)

Czar Alexander I was the first ruler of Russia, and it was during his reign that the country rose to become a major European power. In 1801, he ascended to the throne. He was a jumble of inconsistencies. Both thunderous and enigmatic, he was a force to be reckoned with. He was a natural idealist. He had a religious bent to his mind, which gave him an unbalanced and intriguing personality. However, because of the education he had received from a Swiss tutor, he was initially a liberal. His liberalism led him to believe that peace in Europe could be achieved through Christian means. The presence of the Russian Czar among the emperors and ministers who attended the Congress of Vienna in 1804-15 was notable because he was the only liberal who exerted a positive influence on the proceedings of the Congress. He was the one who insisted on giving the defeated French generous terms. He also insisted that the country's few French kings rule according to a charter. He bolstered the German people's desire for their country's unity and integrity. He was so liberal with the Poles that he established a separate kingdom of Poland and gave it autonomy under his rule. He gave Poland a constitution and respected Finland's constitution, which was recently annexed by Russia. He also freed the serfs and abolished slavery in some Northern provinces. As a result of his religious convictions, a Holy Alliance was formed. When he came under

the full influence of Metternich, he abandoned liberalism and became an arch reactionary.

Nicholas I (1825-55)

Following Alexander's death, liberal uprisings erupted in Russia, with the goal of establishing a constitutional government. The revolutionaries are known as Decemberists because they were the ones who led the uprisings in December. However, Nicholas I, Alexander I's brother who succeeded to the throne after some difficulties, brutally suppressed the uprising. He became a vehement opponent of liberalism. To prevent the spread of liberal ideas, he banned foreign periodicals and magazines, prohibited foreign travel, and established an effective espionage system. When the Poles revolted in 1830, Nicholas crushed them. A total of 45000 Poles were expelled from Poland. Nicholas pursued a policy of imperialism. He wanted to break up Turkey by supporting the Greek cause. He took full advantage of Turkey's defeat at Naverino. After France and England withdrew from the scene, he forced the Sultan to accept the Treaty of Adrianople, which granted Greece independence. After defeating Mehemet Ali, Nicholas converted the Black Sea into a Russian lake by signing the Unkier Skelessi Treaty with Turkey. In 1848, Nicholas aided Austria by crushing a Hungarian uprising. When the Prussian king was offered the German throne by the Frankfurt parliament, he helped keep him in check. Nicholas' downfall, however, was precipitated by a dispute over Turkey's holy sites. He hoped to gain control of Turkey by supporting the cause of the Greek monks. However, he was unsuccessful. His downfall and death were brought about by the Crimean War.

ALEXANDER II AND HIS REFORMS

Following Nicholas I's death in 1855, his son Alexander II assumed the Russian throne until his assassination in 1881. He was 37 years old when he ascended the throne, and he did not inherit his father's cruel traits. He was most humiliated by his country's defeat in the Crimean War at the hands of Britain and France. The disaster in

Crimea (1856) exposed the country's military ineptness as well as its socioeconomic backwardness. The despotic Czar bore sole responsibility for the current state of affairs. As a result, the new Czar, who came to power in the middle of the Crimean War, felt compelled to implement liberal reforms in his country. During his first decade in office, he instituted a series of reforms, as previously stated. However, he was careful to protect royal prerogatives and to inform the public that reforms can come from above rather than through violent revolution.

Reforms

All repressive laws pertaining to travel, the press, and religion were repealed. Railway construction and the establishment of a weapon industry were given special consideration during the Czar's expansion of railways. By supplying capital and securing foreign capital, the government aided the growing industries. Exports increased from 181 to 350 million roubles between 1860 and 1870, while imports increased from 159 to 336 million.

Emancipation of the Serfs

There were 45 million serfs in Russia, half of whom worked on crown lands and the rest worked for nobles and the Church. They were slaves who worked on their masters' lands for pitiful wages. They had been heavily exploited. The landlord, the church, and the emperor made no improvements to the land, but the peasants were forced to bear the crushing burden of paying taxes. Serfs working on the crown's land, on the other hand, fared better because the lands were held by Mirs (village communities). During Alexander I's final days, he devised a plan to gradually emancipate the serfs. Nicholas, his brother, did nothing about this issue after he died. The Edict of Emancipation was issued on March 3, 1861. It ended serfdom throughout the Empire, earning Alexander the title of "Czar Liberator" in the process. This manifesto not only declared the serfs free men, but it also attempted to resolve the far more difficult issue of land ownership. The Czar believed that simply granting serfs

freedom while leaving all land in the hands of the nobles would result in the formation of a large proletariat with no property, putting them in a position of economic dependence on the nobles, rendering the gift of freedom a farce. Furthermore, the peasants were adamant that they were the rightful owners of the lands on which they and their forefathers had lived and farmed for centuries, and the fact that the landlords were the legal owners made no difference to them. Giving them freedom without land, leaving it to the nobles who wanted to keep it, would be bitterly resented as worsening their situation. Giving them the land in exchange for their liberty, on the other hand, would spell the end of the nobility as a class considered vital to the state. As a result of this conflict of interests, a compromise was reached that was acceptable to neither party, but favoured the nobility over the peasants.

The Division of the Land

The lands were split into two sections. One was to be kept by the landlords, while the other was to be distributed to the peasants individually or collectively as members of the village community or Mir to which they belonged. However, the peasant and the village must pay the landlord for the land that has been assigned to them. Because they were unable to do so, the state was required to advance the funds and collect it in instalments. The peasants were dissatisfied with this arrangement. In light of this method of land division, their newly acquired freedom appeared to be a dubious boon. They were oblivious to the fact that they were benefiting from the change. Personal liberty would be meaningless if the task of earning a living became more difficult rather than easier. The peasants considered the land to be theirs. However, the state guaranteed a portion of the land to the landlords for the rest of their lives, and the peasants were required to pay for the portion that was assigned to them. Furthermore, as the division was ironed out, they discovered that they had less land for their own use than they had before emancipation, and that they had to pay the landlords more than the lands they did receive were worth through the state. As a result, the Edict of Emancipation did not bring peace or prosperity to the peasants. Due to the vast increase in population and the resulting greater pressure on the land, the land question

became steadily more acute over the next fifty years. The Russian peasant was forced to live on the brink of starvation. As a result, the emancipation of the serfs is not seen as a blessing. Nonetheless, by abolishing an indefensible wrong, Russia improved its moral standing in the eyes of other nations. Every man was legally free. Furthermore, the peasants fared better than the peasants of Prussia and Austria at the time of liberation, despite being sick.

Administrative Reforms

Alexander established District Local Councils, which were made up of people's representatives. These District Councils elected the Provincial Councils. The responsibilities assigned to these local bodies were related to infrastructure development, such as road and bridge repair, sanitation and primary education supervision, and famine prevention. The Provincial Governor's veto power, however, limited the authority of these councils. These councils proved to be excellent training grounds for public affairs management. They paved the way for power decentralisation as well.

Judicial Reform

The judicial system, which had become corrupt and inefficient, was improved by Alexander. To make judges more independent in their work, he separated the judiciary from the executive branch. The jury trial was established, and the court proceedings were made public. He had a new panel code created so that all of the cases could be tried in the same way. In the eyes of the law, everyone was now treated equally. Customary and national laws guided the Court. In higher courts, trained judges were appointed. The Senate was the only higher court of appeal. Justices of the Peace were established to deal with minor cases and were elected by the people. Alexander, on the other hand, made a mistake by making this position elective. After a few years, it bred corruption.

Financial Reforms

In the financial sector, Russia established the State Bank in 1866, which helped to stabilise the national currency. The Ministry of Finance encouraged railroad development, which aided vital export activity, but it was cautious and cautious in its international ventures. In 1882, the ministry established the Peasant Land Bank to help enterprising farmers acquire more land. The elimination of liquor concessions in favour of an Excise tax was another significant measure. Recognition of Fundamental Rights and Educational Reforms

Alexander II was the first Czar to recognise the people's fundamental rights. He lifted restrictions on the press, journalism, and educational institutions. A number of new educational institutions have been established across the country. A High School for girls was established in 1858. Alexander II established a ministry of education. It established a large number of primary schools in towns under Zemstov's control. A new secondary school facility has been established. Lecturers were given more freedom in their appointments, and Deans of Faculties were elected. Universities were given autonomy under the new University Code. Professors were given complete freedom to express their opinions to students. The teaching of law has been modernised. Greek, Latin, and Mathematics, as well as natural science, were introduced into school curricula. There has been an increase in the number of secondary schools. In the field of women's education, significant progress has been made. Russia now has a total of eight universities.

Military Reforms

The military service reform, which took place in 1874, was the last of Alexander II's major reforms. The need for a modern army was demonstrated during the Franco-

Prussian War. The old system of long-term service (25 years) for a small number of recruits was scrapped because it was too taxing on the people and provided virtually no reserves. Dmitry Milyutin introduced the new conscription system in 1874, which provided for a short period of active service followed by several years of reserve service. It was drawn on democratic lines, with all young men of 21 years old, regardless of class, being called to the colours. Only young men who were the sole breadwinners in their families were eligible for exemption. It also allowed the army to play a role in teaching many peasants to read and pioneering women's medical education.

Criticism

The peasantry was disappointed by these reforms, which were conceived in an enlightened spirit. They saw themselves as burdened by taxes, and they resented having to pay compensation for land that they had come to regard as their own. The nobility lost their access to free labour, and their debts were paid with redemption fees. They struggled to adjust to the change after being accustomed to free labour, and they soon discovered that the bonds they received as compensation money were not easily convertible into cash. Serfdom's abolition did not produce the desired results. The serf was relieved of some of his disabilities, but he was saddled with new responsibilities. The reform of Local Self-Government was met with apathy by the public. It had only a minor impact on society. The Zemstov was a non-political organisation. It couldn't criticise, control, or influence the executive's policy. There was no substitute for a parliament. It had no authority over the officers' tyranny. The Czar's autocratic power was not diminished in any way. The Zemstov had no legal authority to raise funds through self-imposed taxes. It was forced to rely on the government's meagre contribution. Some of Alexander II's major reforms are listed above. During his first ten years in office, he enacted a slew of beneficial reforms that instilled optimism among liberals. A new spirit began to spread throughout Russia,

and it was reflected in new literature. Disillusionment, on the other hand, did not take long to arrive.

LET US SUM UP We learned about the deplorable socio-economic conditions in Russia during the early nineteenth century after completing this unit. The reactionary regimes of Alexander I and Nicholas I, as well as growing popular protests during their reigns; the liberal reforms enacted during Alexander II's reign in various aspects of the administration, which had an impact on people's lives; and the liberal reforms enacted during Alexander II's reign in various aspects of the administration, which had an impact on people's lives....