Rutgers Bio 115 Exam 2 and Final Flashcards Quizlet PDF

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Quizlet flaschards for exam 2 material. Beal...

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Rutgers Bio 115 Exam 2 and Final Terms in this set (164) reproduction Functions of cell division

growth and development tissue renewal

all DNA in a cell Prokaryotic- single DNA molecule

Genome Prokaryotic vs. Prokaryotic

Eukaryotic- several DNA molecules DNA molecules in cell are packages into chromosomes

Eukaryotic chromosomes consist of chromatin, a Chromatin

complex DNA and protein that condenses during cell division

Ploidy

Haploid cell (n)

Diploid cell (2n)

Somatic cell

# of chromosomes in a cell

one copy of each chromosome (Gametes=sex cells)

two copies of each chromosome (one inherited from mom one inherited from dad)

body cell (2n)

cell growth and DNA replication Interphase

90% of cell cycle divided into 3 sub phases GROWS DURING ALL 3 PHASES

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G1 phase

first gap, growing phase

S phase

DNA is replicated, chromosomes double

G2 Phase

Mitotic (M) Phase

second gap, grows again

mitosis and cytokinesis

Ploidy=2n (animal cell, somatic cell) G1-gap 1

No DNA synthesis

-ploidy

cell functions and communicates

-function

protein manufactures most of cell life is in G1

S-synthesis -ploidy -function

chromosomes duplicate ploidy=2n to 2n DNA and chromosomes are synthesized sister chromatids are identical

G2-gap 2

ploidy=2n

-ploidy

centrosome duplicate- made up of centrioles

-function

1. prophase 5 phases of Eukaryotic cell division

2. pro-metaphase 3. metaphase 4. anaphase 5. telophase

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-chromosomes condense, become visible -Mitotic spindle begins to form (microtubules) -Centrosomes move away from each other to opposite poles -Organizes DNA Prophase

-nuclear envelope begin to break down -nucleolus disappears -mitotic spindle elongates -chromosomes become more condensed -some microtubules connect to kinetochordes PRO-metaphase

handles -drive movement this connection ends prometaphase and metaphase begins

-LONGEST STAGE -centrosomes are at complete opposite ends of cell -chromosomes align on the metaphase plate( the midway point btwn the spindles two poles) Metaphase

-each chromosome is now attached to the kinetochore microtubules

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-SHORTEST STAGE -cohesion proteins are cleaved (allowing chromatids to separate -chromosomes begin to move to opposite sides -at the end of this phase there are two complete Anaphase

sets of chromosomes 2n on each side of cell -still diploid 2n (animals always diploid)

-the tow new daughter cells form -the nuclear envelope reforms -nucleoli appears -cytokinesis has already begun and will divide cells with cleavage furrow -CYTOKINESIS NOT APART OF MITOSIS Telophase/Cytokinesis

-cytoplasm divides -each daughter cell gets one centriole process varies between plant and animal cell -retrieves to interphase

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1. chromosome replication begins 2. one copy of the origin is now at each end 3. replication finishes Process of binary fission (4

4. two daughter cells

steps)

2n=2n

Asexual Reproduction -how many parents? -does this organism go through mitosis or meiosis? -what does this produce? -advantages/disadvantages

MITOSIS

-one parents -mitosis -clones -advantages, always the same offspring -disadvantages, always the same mutations take a toll (clones will get all the benefits and mistakes of its parent)

Sexual Reproduction

-two parents

-how many parents?

-meiosis

-does this organism go through

-variable

mitosis or meiosis?

-advantage, genetic variation

-what does this produce?

-disadvantage, hard to find a partner

-advantages/disadvantages

46 chromosome Human chromosomes

23 pairs of homologs -1 pairs if sex chromosomes (XX or XY) -22 pairs of autosomes (body chromosomes)

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1. sexual reproduction Fertilization and Meiosis 4 facts

2. makes sure each offspring has same number of chromosomes 3.haploid and diploid alternate during life cycle 4.timing of 2 events varies among species

Haploid and diploid alternate life cycle

-2n-multicellular diploid stage (sporophyte) alternated with the -n-multicellular haploid state (gametophyte)

-like mitosis: replication of DNA before meiosis Meiosis

-NOT A CYCLE -results in 4 daughter cells (haploid cells= 1 copy of chromosome)

1. interphase same as mitosis (G1, S, G2) 2. meiosis 1 (prophase, metaphase, anaphase, 4 stages of Meiosis

telophase, PMAT) 3. interkinesis 4. Meiosis II (PMAT)

-same as mitosis -chromosomes duplicate & centrioles replicate -each chromosome is composed of two sister Meiosis interphase

chromatids exact copies -ploidy=2n (still diploid just double the mass of DNA) -humans (46=2n 23 chromatids AFTER DUPLICATION 92 chromatids)

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-HOMOLOGOUS chromosomes separate resulting in 2 haploid (n) daughter cells -2n-----> 2 x n Meiosis I summary

-diploid to 2 cells that are haploid each -each chromosome still consists of two sister chromatids

-same as mitosis - EXCEPT each chromosome pairs with it homolog, aligned gene by gene and crossing over occurs: the DNA molecules of non sister chromatids are broken Prophase 1

by proteins and are rejoined to each other -cell is diploid

where crossing over has occurred in Prophase 1 Chiasmata

-homologs pairs line up at the metaphase plate -microtubules from poles attached to kinetochore of the chromosome Metaphase 1

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-homologous pairs separate -sister chromatids remain attached at centromere and move as one unit to pole disjunction-separate Anaphase 1

nondisjunction-if it goes wrong

- each half of the cell has a complete haploid set of duplicated chromosomes Telophase 1 and Cytokinesis

-each chromosome is composed of two sister chromatids - one or both regions contain regions of non sister chromatid -cytokinesis occurs simultaneously

no chromosome replication occurs Interkinesis

because the chromosomes are already replicated -does not go through S phase again

-sister chromatids separate Meiosis II

-4 haploid (n) daighter cells -division occurs like meiosis

Prophase II

-spindle forms -chromosomes = pair of sister chromatids

-sister chromatids line up on the metaphase plate -tow sister chromatids of each chromosome are not Metaphase II

identical -kinetochores of sister chromatids attach to microtubules extending from opposite poles

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-sister chromatids separate -sister chromatids of each chromosome now move Anaphase II

as two newly individual chromosomes towards opposite poles

-chromosomes arrive at opposite poles -Nuclei forms and chromosomes decondense -4 haploid daughter cells are formed Telophase II/ Cytokinesis

Gene

unit of heredity

Allele

alternative version of gene

Character

Trait

observable heritable feature

detectable variable of variable

Genotype

genetic makeup, what alleles are present (not seen)

Phenotype

observable physical traits (can see)

1. inexpensive Why did Mendel use pea plants? (6 reasons)

2. many varieties 3. easy to grow 4. large # of offspring 5. choose clearly identifiable traits 6. easy to control pollination

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to test this hypothesis Medal crossed "true breeding" plants with contrasting traits P=parental generation- PXW Blending hypothesis

F1=first filial generation- all plants were purple F2=second filial generation: 3:1 purple:white no intermediate phenotypes appeared Mendel rejected blending hypothesis

Mendel's developed

1. alleles- alternative versions of genes

hypothesis that explains the 3:1

2. 2 alleles inherited - 1 from each parent

inheritance pattern

3. dominant and recessive alleles

(4 related concepts)

4. two principles of heredity (Mendel's Law)

alternative versions of genes (codes for protein in DNA on chromosome) each gene is at same locus (location) on Concept #1. alleles

homologous chromosomes

two alleles may be identical as in the true breeding plants Concept #2. two alleles one

(P generation)- same homozygous

inherited from each parent

or may be different (F1 hybrids) - heterozygous

Concept #3. dominant &

if two alleles at a locus are different, then dominant

recessive

allele determines the organisms appearance

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law of segregation- each gamete gets 1 allele for every trait Concept #4. Mendel's Law

law of independent assortment- two alleles for a character segregate during gamete formation (meiosis)

today this law applies only to genes Limitations of Mendel's law of

genes located near each other n the same X tend to

independent assortment

be inherited together (we call them linked) Mendel did not know this

predicts combined probability of independent events (one does no affect probability of other to Multiplication rule

occur (P)this and (P)that word "and" means to multiply

Thomas Hunt Morgan The chromosome theory of

-evidence that chromosomes are the location of

inheritance

Mendel's law of heritable factors

-what did it suggest?

-Drosophila , fruit fly (4 pairs of chromosomes, 3

-what was the experiment

pairs of autosomes, 1 pair of sex chromosomes) diploid #=8

Wild type

Mutation phenotype

Sex linked gene

phenotype most observed in population (red eyes in Drosophila)

alternatives to wild type (white eyes in Drosophila)

-can be located on either sex chromosome X or Y

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Y linked gene

X linked gene

X linked recessive disorders

X inactivation in female mammals (BARR BODY)

Linked genes

on the Y (few of these) most are related to sex determination

on the X, has as many genes as an autosome, not all determine sex

more common in males than females ex: red/green color blindness

functionally females are actually hemizygous because 1 X out of the XX is randomly inactivated during embryonic development

on the same chromosome tend to be inherited together

2 genes are inherited as a single unit , close together on same chromosome Complete linkage

parental genotype 100 % recombination genotype 0 must be on same chromosome

independently assorted parental genotype #> 50%-105% chance they show Incomplete linkage

up together Recombination genotype #> 0 and50% must be on same chromosome

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show up together 1/2 of the time- supports Mendel parental genotype 50% Unlinked

recombination genotype 50% can be or could not be on same chromosome

The closer genes are the lower

the lower the probability there will be for genetic

the.....

recombination

1. phosphate group 2. sugar (deoxyribose) 3. nitrogenous base Structure of nucleotide

one ring cytosine thymine pyrimidine

two rings adenine guanine Puradine

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determined structure of DNA (1953) by using information from previous researchers James Watson & Francis Crick

- Rosalind Franklin and Maurice Wilkins (1951-53) -Erwin Chargaff (1949)

X-ray defraction determined 3D structures of molecules her image of DNA enabled Watson and Crick to deduce Rosalind Franklin (1951-53)

1. DNA was helical 2. made up of 2 strands forming a double helix 3. width of helix 4. distance between turns 5. nucleotides bases stacked like rings on latter

1. base composition of DNA varies between species 2. total purine (A+G)= total puradine (C+T) amount of A= amount of T amount of G=amount of C Erwin Chargaff's rule (1949)

but A+T does not equal G+C

composed of two strands of DNA each strand has a 1. sugar phosphate back bone outside of helix (rails of latter) Double helix

joined 3' 5' by phosphodiester linkages no variability 2. 4 nitrogenous bases attached to back bone by covalent bonds lots of variability

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1. held by hydrogen bonds between A+T G+C 2. strands run antiparallel run in opposite directions 3' to 5' 5' to 3' Two strands on DNA

3. ends at two strands differ 3' end- free 3' hydroxyl (OH) 5' end - free 5' phosphate

Semi conservative DNA replication

Process DNA initiation part 1 part 2 part 3

DNA helicase

each new molecule of DNA contains 1 parental strand and a newly synthesized strand

part 1. origin of replication, DNA strands are separated from replication bubble, replication process out along fork part 2. 3 proteins for unwinding part 3. two proteins start replication

untwists double helix at the replication forks

SSBP's prevent closing of DNA strands Single stranded binding proteins

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corrects overwinding down the DNA strandprevents knots Topoisomerase

synthesis RNA primer- initial nucleotide strand is a short RNA primer 5-10 nucleotides with an open 3' end (starting point for Primase

new DNA strand these 5-10 nucleotides are what signals where DNA polymerase should begin synthesizing new DNA strand

DNA polymerase

Process elongation

Nucleoside triphosphate

Leading strand

Lagging strand

builds new strand, it can only add nucleotides to an existing 3' end

DNA polymerase catalyze the elongation of new DNA always 5' to 3' (link of 5' P to 3' OH group)

building block= nucleoside (base+sugar)

growing toward fork continuously

growing away from fork discontinuous fragments called Okazaki fragments

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RNA polymerase-sequence of DNA- RNA polymerase- Sequence of DNA Okazaki Fragments

change in nucleotide sequence of DNA Mutation

permanent change in daughter molecule evolutionary significance -source of variation and new alleles

each gene dictates production of a specific enzyme Beadle and Tatum (1920s) hypothesis

now known: all proteins are enzymes one gene=one polypeptide/protein

Francis Cicle (1956)

Central dogma

proposed central dogma

DNA-RNA -protein

info in DNA used to synthesize messengerRNA (mRNA) occurs in all organisms Transcription (first stage of gene expression)

eukaryotes occurs in nucleus prokaryotes occurs in cytosol

Translation (2nd stage of gene

ribosome uses mRNA to synthesize polypeptide

expression)

occurs in all organism

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mRNA

messenger RNA encodes an entire protein

rRNA

ribosomal RNA- structural part of ribosome

tRNA

transfer RNA carry individual amino acids to ribosome during translation

RNA polymerase binds to promoter on DNA and gets ready to initiate transcription binding always occurs at the beginning of gene, DOES NOT begin at AUG Transcription initiation Do NOT need primer to build RNA

RNA polymerase creates mRNA molecule as it moves down the template strand of DNA RNA polymerase moves down stream 5'-3' Transcription elongation

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Transcription ends when RNA polymerase reaches the terminator or specific DNA sequence to stop transcript

RNA polymerase pop...