Semester 1 Psych Notes Pt 2 PDF

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Chapter Nine: Life-Span Development I.

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Developmental Psychology - The study of the changes that occur in people from birth through old age A. Stages of Life We Will Cover 1. Prenatal Development 2. Newborn 3. Infancy & Childhood 4. Adolescence 5. Adulthood 6. Late Adulthood Methods in Developmental Psychology A. Methods in Developmental Psychology 1. Developmental psychologists use the same research methods, such as naturalistic observation, correlational studies, and experiments, as do other psychologists in different areas of specialization. But since developmental psychologists are interested in change over time they also use these special types of studies: a) Cross-sectional b) Longitudinal c) Biographical 2. Cross-Sectional Study a) Cross-sectional study – a method of studying developmental changes by comparing people of different ages at about the same time. (1) Limitation: Cross-sectional studies don’t distinguish age differences from cohort differences. (2) Cohort – a group of people born during the same period in historical time. 3. Longitudinal Study a) Longitudinal study – a method of studying developmental changes by evaluating the same people at different points in their lives. b) Limitations: (1) Longitudinal studies may not distinguish age differences from differences caused by using different assessment or measurement tools (2) Longitudinal studies take a considerable amount of time to complete. 4. Biographical Study a) Biographical (or retrospective) study – a method of studying

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developmental changes by reconstructing a person’s past through extensive interviews and inferring the effects of past events on current behaviors. b) Limitation: Biographical data are less trustworthy than data from other designs because people’s recollections of the past may be inaccurate. Prenatal Development A. Definitions 1. Prenatal development – development from conception to birth. 2. Embryo – a developing human between 2 weeks and three months after conception. 3. Fetus – a developing human between 3 months after conception and birth. B. Factors Influencing Prenatal Development 1. Critical period – a time when specific internal or external influences (like teratogens) significantly affect development; at other periods, the same results will have little or no effect. 2. 3. In general, the embryo is most vulnerable to the effects of teratogens (i.e., there are many critical periods during the embryonic stage of prenatal development). However, the fetus remains vulnerable to specific teratogens. 4. Teratogens – toxic substances such as alcohol or nicotine that cross the placenta and result in congenital disabilities. 5. Fetal alcohol spectrum disorder (FASD) – a condition caused by the mother’s consumption of alcohol while pregnant; FASD includes facial deformities, heart defects, stunted growth, brain damage, and cognitive impairments. 6. Improved nutrition and access to health care have decreased the infant death rate significantly. 7. The amount of stress the mother experiences during pregnancy increases the concentration of certain hormones in the mother’s body, increasing the risk for learning, attention, and emotional impairments in the newborn. The New Born A. Reflexes 1. Reflexes enable newborns to respond to their environments in several ways. 2. Newborns can also imitate the facial expressions of adults. 3. Crying and, after about six weeks, smiling allow them to communicate their needs. 4. Neonates (newborns) have many reflexes that help them to survive: a) Grasping

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b) Sucking c) Swallowing d) Rooting e) Stepping B. Temperament - characteristic patterns of emotional reactions and emotional selfregulation 1. Hereditary and prenatal factors may influence temperament. 2. Temperament often remains stable, even into adulthood. 3. Biological and environmental factors contribute to the stability in temperament. 4. Infants are often categorized into one of four types of temperaments: a) Easy b) Difficult c) Slow-to-warm-up d) Shy child C. Perceptual Abilities 1. Vision – newborns can see at birth, but their vision is blurry. a) Visual acuity (i.e., clarity) is limited at birth – the visual field is clear only 8-10 inches from the faces of newborns – but by 6 or 8 months of age, they have adult-like acuity. b) Visual preferences – infants prefer to look at novel stimuli. They also prefer high contrast and simple patterns. As they get older, they like designs with increasing complexity. c) Face perception – infants have a preference for looking at faces. They can discriminate different facial expressions, and they can follow another person’s gaze. d) Newborns also prefer to look at the faces of their mothers over that of strangers. 2. Depth Perception - The ability to see the world in three dimensions is well developed by the time a baby learns to crawl, between 6 and 12 months of age 3. Hearing – even before birth, the ears are in working order. Fetuses can listen to and react to sounds in the womb. a) Infants exhibit a preference for their mother’s voice immediately after birth. b) Infants can perceive the direction of a sound. c) Newborns prefer to hear speech sounds and distinguish between the speech sounds of various languages better than adults can. 4. Taste and smell – infants have likes and dislikes, preferring sweet flavors and the scent of their mothers over that of strangers. Infancy and Childhood

A. Neurological Development 1. During the first two years, the number of connections between neurons increases dramatically. 2. Myelin sheaths proliferate during infancy, coating the axons of many neurons in the brain and spinal cord, making neuronal transmission much quicker. 3. The density of synaptic connections increases rapidly during the first two years of childhood, then a process called “synaptic pruning” commences that eliminates unused synapses. B. Physical Development 1. By the first birthday, infants grow 10 inches and gain 15 pounds (tripling their weight). 2. During the second year, growth rates slow considerably. 3. Growth during infancy is sporadic, occurring in spurts. 4. Changes in body proportions occur during childhood. From birth, the head has been disproportionately large, grows more slowly after age two while the rest of the body continues to grow gradually. C. Motor Development 1. Motor development refers to the acquisition of skills involving movement. 2. The average ages at which specific skills are acquired are called developmental norms. 3. Developmental Norms a) Birth: Have grasping and stepping reflexes b) Two months: Can lift head and shoulders c) Ten½ months: Can sit up by themselves d) Nine months: Can stand while holding onto something e) 10 months: Begin crawling f) One year: Begin walking 4. Maturation – an automatic biological unfolding of development in an organism as a function of time passage. 5. As a result of the interaction of physical maturation and experience, children acquire increasingly complex motor abilities, such as bike riding and swimming. D. Language Development 1. Language develops according to a fairly predictable pattern, progressing from cooing and babbling (repetition of consonant-vowel combinations) at 2 to 4 months to the use of holophrases (one-word sentences) from 12 to 18 months and to the formation of grammatically-correct multiple-word sentences after three years of age. 2. Infant-directed speech-language development is fostered by how caregivers speak with young children, often speaking more slowly and

repetitively, using simple sentences, saying in a higher-pitched voice, and using exaggerated intonation. These speech qualities grab the infants’ attention and help them distinguish the sounds of their language and understand the social utility of language. 3. Development of Speech a) 2 months: Cooing b) 3-4 months: Babbling c) 4-6 months: Intonation & basic sounds of native language d) 6 months: Recognition of commonly used words (own name, Mommy, Daddy) e) 12 months: First word f) 18-20 months: One-word sentences (holophrases) g) 2nd year of life: Possessive words & naming h) 3rd year of life: Two- and three-word sentences i) After 3 years: Filled in sentences and increased language production j) 5 or 6 years: Vocabulary of over 2500 words and sentences of 6-8 words E. Social Development 1. Attachment – emotional bond that develops in the first year of life that makes human babies cling to their caregivers for safety and comfort. 2. The attachment relationship is based upon many hours of interaction between the baby and parent; signs of attachment are evident by the age of 6 months or earlier. 3. Stranger anxiety – fear of unfamiliar people which usually emerges around 7 months, reaching its peak at 12 months and declining during the second year. 4. Stranger anxiety, which is often accompanied by separation anxiety when the infant is left in the care of a less-familiar caregiver, are indicators not only of attachment to the parent(s) but also of “person permanence,” or object permanence that the infant is applying to their parent(s). F. Cognitive Development 1. Jean Piaget a) Observed and studied children b) Believed that cognitive development is a way of adapting to the environment c) Viewed children as intrinsically motivated to explore and understand things d) 4-stage theory of cognitive development 2. Piaget’s Stages of Cognitive Development a) Sensory-motor stage (birth to 2 years) – the stage of cognitive

development in which infants use their sensory abilities and motor skills to develop a sense of understanding about the world (including object permanence) and the ability to form mental representations. (1) Object permanence – that concept that things continue to exist even when they are out of sight; develops by about 12 months of age. (2) Self-recognition – by 24 months of age, children have learned to recognize themselves in a mirror, and important foundation for the sense of self. b) Preoperational Stage (2 to 7 years) – the stage of cognitive development in which the individual becomes able to use mental representations and language to describe, remember, and reason about the world, though only in an egocentric fashion. (1) Egocentric – preoperational children are unable to see things from another’s point of view. (2) Mental representations – mental images or symbols (such as words) used to think about or remember an object, a person, or an event; develop between 18 and 24 months of age. (3) Representational thought allows preoperational children to engage in fantasy play and to use symbolic gestures. (4) Preoperational children are easily fooled by a change in appearance. Children in this stage fail to conserve (i.e., fail to recognize the permanence of physical dimensions). c) Concrete-Operational (7-11 years) (1) Principle of conservation (a) The concept that the quantity of a substance is not altered by reversible changes in its appearance. (2) Complex classification (a) Organizing items into superordinate and subordinate classes becomes possible d) Formal-Operational (Adolescence to adulthood) (1) Abstract and hypothetical thought (2) Cause and Effect Reasoning G. Moral Development 1. Lawrence Kohlberg a) Proposed a b) 3-level theory of c) moral development: (1) Preconventional level

(2) Conventional level (3) Postconventional level 2. Levels of Morality a) Lawrence Kohlberg used the “Heinz Dilemma” (see the dilemma presented on page 318 of the text and as an activity in this presentation) to assess the level of moral reasoning of children and adolescents. The justifications offered for what they thought Heinz should do fall into one of three levels: (1) Preconventional level – commonly found among preadolescent children, judgments about right and wrong are often based on the outcomes of the behavior in question (was it followed by a reward or punishment?) or whether the behavior satisfied a need (particularly their own). (2) Conventional level – early and middle adolescents typically exhibit this level of moral reasoning which is characterized by a concern for helping and pleasing others, and later, concerns about respecting authority (including following rules) and maintaining social order. (3) Postconventional level – this advanced level of moral reasoning is not typically achieved until late adolescence or early adulthood – if it is achieved at all – because it requires abstract thought. Moral judgments at the postconventional level involve an appeal to the abstract principles of justice, liberty, and equality. Strongly-held personal convictions often guide moral reasoning at this level, and these individuals sometimes find their beliefs about morality in conflict with what society has determined to be legal. 3. Criticisms of Kohlberg’s Theory a) Many adolescents and adults fail to progress into the postconventional level of moral reasoning. Does this mean that a large portion of society is morally underdeveloped? b) Kohlberg’s theory does not account for cultural differences in moral values. c) Kohlberg’s theory is often criticized as sexist – males tend to score higher than females on his test of moral development due to his emphasis on “justice” as the most highly valued principle of morality. (1) Carol Gilligan argued that males are socialized to appeal to justice when making moral judgments, whereas females are socialized to appeal to compassion and caring for others.

According to Gilligan, Kohlberg’s choice to consider appeals to justice as being more morally-sophisticated than caring for others was simply a product of his own male bias. H. Erikson’s Psychosocial Stages 1. Erik Erikson proposed a theory of eight psychosocial stages of development: a) Trust vs. Mistrust b) Autonomy vs. Shame c) Initiative vs. Guilt d) Industry vs. Inferiority e) Identity vs. Role Confusion f) Intimacy vs. Isolation g) Generativity vs. Stagnation h) Integrity vs. Despair 2. Trust vs. Mistrust a) Birth–1 year (1) Challenge: Developing a sense that the world is safe and good. (2) Consistent care=trust (3) Inconsistent care=mistrust b) Basic trust – according to Erik Erikson, a sense of trust in the world is established if the primary caregiver consistently meets the infant’s needs. This is an important aspect of the attachment relationship. If the needs of the infant are not met or are met inconsistently, the infant will develop a sense of mistrust and a less secure attachment to the parent(s). 3. Autonomy vs. Shame & Doubt a) 1–3 years (1) Challenge: Realizing that one is an independent person with the ability to make decisions (2) Socialization: process by which children learn the behaviors and attitudes appropriate to their family & culture. b) Autonomy – sense of independence; a desire not to be controlled by others. A healthy attachment to a caregiver provides the infant with a “secure base” from which to explore the world without fear. c) There are long-term developmental consequences related to the quality of the attachment relationship that the infant forms with a caregiver. Secure attachment relationships tend to be beneficial to development throughout childhood, adolescence and adulthood,

while a lack of secure attachment relationships are predictive of several future social, behavioral, and emotional challenges. d) Socialization – process by which children learn the behaviors and attitudes appropriate to their family and culture. The attachment relationship has clear implications for the successful socialization of children. e) Autonomy versus shame and doubt – according to Erikson, failure to acquire a sense of autonomy, which is influenced by the quality of the attachment with a caregiver, may lead to a sense of selfdoubt. Children who face criticism from parents and peers may also develop a sense of shame. 4. Initiative vs. Guilt a) 3 – 6 years (1) Challenge: Developing a willingness to try new things and to handle failure (2) Accomplish Goals/Taking on new tasks= initiative (3) Criticism=guilt b) Initiative versus guilt – Erikson believed that preschool children were becoming increasingly involved in efforts to accomplish goals. Parental encouragement should build confidence and enthusiasm for taking on new tasks (initiative), while criticism should generate feelings of unworthiness, resentment, and guilt. 5. Industry vs. Inferiority a) 6 years – adolescence (1) Challenge: Learning competence in basic skills (physical & academic) and to cooperate with others (social skills). (2) Peer group – a network of same-aged friends and acquaintances who give one another emotional and social support. b) Industry versus inferiority – during the elementary school years, children must master increasingly difficult skills, including academic and social skills. Erikson argued that industry – as sense of competence – is influenced by the type of feedback one receives from peers especially. 6. Identity vs. Role Confusion a) Adolescence (1) Challenge: Developing a coherent, integrated sense of inner self (2) Balancing Roles=Identity (3) Failure to balance roles= role confusion b) Identity formation – Erikson’s term for the development of a stable

sense of self necessary to make the transition from dependence on others to dependence on oneself. Erikson described the primary developmental challenge facing adolescents as identity versus role confusion. 7. Love, Partnerships, and Parenting a) Young adulthood (1) Challenge: Establishing ties to another in a trusting, loving relationship b) Intimacy versus isolation – Erikson argued that forming intimate relationships was the major developmental challenge of young adulthood. 8. Generativity vs. Stagnation a) Middle adulthood (1) Challenge: Finding meaning in career, family, and community via productive work b) Generativity versus stagnation – Erikson argued that the major developmental challenge facing middle-aged adults was to continue to be productive and creative in a way that contributes to future generations. Failure to do so results in stagnation. c) Given the positive trends in mental health and personality development, it appears that most middle-aged adults are successfully meeting Erikson’s developmental challenge. 9. Ego Integrity vs. Despair a) Late adulthood (1) Challenge: Viewing one’s life as satisfactory and worth living 10. Baumrind’s Parenting Styles a) Authoritarian parents - Control their children’s behavior rigidly and insist on unquestioning obedience. b) Permissive-indifferent parents - Exert too little control, failing to set limits on their children’s behavior; also neglectful and inattentive. c) Permissive-indulgent parents - Very supportive of their children, but fail to set appropriate limits on their behavior. d) Authoritative parents - Provide firm structure and guidance without being overly controlling; listen to their children’s opinions and give explanations for their decisions, but it is clear that they are the ones who make and enforce the rules. 11. Sex-Role Development a) Gender identity – an awareness about one’s sex; a little girl’s knowledge that she is a girl, and a little boy’s knowledge that he is

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a boy. Gender identity typically develops by age 3. Gender constancy – the realization that gender does not change with age. This sense of “gender permanence” develops by age 4 or 5. Gender-role awareness – knowledge of what behavior is appropriate for each gender. This knowledge begins to take shape early in childhood. Gender stereotypes – general, oversimplified beliefs about characteristics that men and women are presumed to have. Sex-typed behavior – socially prescribed ways of behaving that differ for boys and girls. (1) Sex-typed behaviors are a product of one’s gender-role awareness and gender stereotypes. (2) Sex-typed behaviors have their origin in both nature and nurture.

Adolescence A. Physical Changes 1. Adolescence is the period of life roughly between the ages of 10 and 20 in which a person transitions from being a child to being an adult. 2. Growth spurt: Rapid increase in height and weight a) Begins, on average, at about age 10½ in girls and 12½ in boys b) Reaches its peak at ages 12 and 14, respectively c) Adult height:...