Teng J. - S1559206 - masterscriptie PDF

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The Effectiveness of Video Tutorial and Preview on Self-efficacy, Task Performance and Learning

An Experimental Study Conducted at a Middle School in Shanghai, China

Jiaqi Teng (s1559206) University of Twente

Author Note

Jiaqi Teng (s1559206), Department of Educational Science and Technology, Faculty of Behavioral Sciences, University of Twente

Correspondence concerning this article should be addressed to Jiaqi Teng, Department of Educational Science and Technology, Faculty of Behavioral Science, University of Twente, P.O. Box 217, 7500 AE Enschede, The Netherlands. Contact: [email protected].

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Table of contents

1. Introduction ................................................................................................................................. 5 1.1. Problem Statement............................................................................................................... 5 1.2. Observational learning and Demonstration-Based Training............................................. 7 2.2. Instructional feature of preview ........................................................................................ 14 1.3. Research questions and hypotheses .................................................................................. 16 2. Method ......................................................................................................................................17 2.1. Participants ......................................................................................................................... 17 2.2. Instrumentation .................................................................................................................. 17 2.2.1. Training materials ....................................................................................................... 17 2.2.2. Self-Efficacy measurement questionnaires ............................................................... 20 2.2.3. Task performance tests ............................................................................................... 21 2.2.4. Trainer instructions ..................................................................................................... 23 2.3. Procedure............................................................................................................................23 2.4. Analysis .............................................................................................................................. 24 3. Result ......................................................................................................................................... 25 3.1. Descriptive analysis ........................................................................................................... 25 3.2. Self-Efficacy before and after training ............................................................................. 25 3.3. Task performances and learning ....................................................................................... 26 4. Discussion ................................................................................................................................. 28 5. Conclusions ............................................................................................................................... 34 References ..................................................................................................................................... 37

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Acknowledgement I would like to express my deepest appreciation to all those who helped me complete this Master thesis. A special gratitude I give to my first supervisor, Professor Hans Van der Meij, who actively showed me the study direction, instructed me to design the relevant experimental materials and provided a lot of feedback on the thesis draft, especially the theoretical part. Furthermore I would also like to acknowledge with much appreciation my second supervisor, Professor Jan Van der Meij, who mainly supported me on the technical part, i.e., how to produce and edit the video tutorial in this study. Special thanks go to the internet engineer, Evert Duipmans, without whose support it would not have been possible to build the login system website and the internet version of the video tutorial. Last but not least, many thanks go to IT teacher, Gu, who helped me conduct the experiments at a middle school in Shanghai, China. In addition, I also would like to express my appreciation to University of Twente English teacher, Jeroen Gevers, who assisted me with the academic writing of this thesis. In the end, I wish to thank all the friends around me who provided me valuable comments and advice on the final project.

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Abstract

Video tutorials have become a popular and evidence-based medium for software training. In order to optimize the effectiveness of video tutorial on software learning, eight guidelines for the design of instructional videos for software training have been proposed. However, systematic validation of the guidelines by scientific experiments is still lacking. In order to fill the gap between scientific theory and practical application, this study aims to investigate the effectiveness of video tutorial on Microsoft Word formatting which are designed based on the eight guidelines, especially to examine the effectiveness of preview on self-efficacy, task performance and learning. Therefore, four research questions are formulated to examine the effect of video tutorial and preview on self-efficacy, immediate post-test, delayed post-test and transfer test. This study compares the effectiveness of video tutorial with and without preview. Experiments were conducted at a middle school in China. Respondents were 65 sixth-grade students (mean age 11 years; range 10-16). Data were collected in two sessions, at seven-day intervals. Paired-Sample t-tests and ANCOVAs were used to analyse the data. Results indicated the video tutorial supported students’ self-efficacy, task performance and learning. However, there was no significant difference between the effectiveness of video tutorial with and without preview on self-efficacy, immediate post-test, delayed post-test and transfer test. More attractive video tutorial and additional experiments are called for in further research to valid the current result.

Keywords: Video tutorial, preview, effectiveness

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The Effectiveness of Video Tutorial and Preview on Self-efficacy, Task Performance and Learning: An Experimental Study Conducted at a Middle School in Shanghai, China

1. Introduction 1.1. Problem Statement

With the widespread of computer and information technology around the world, video tutorials have been used for different educational subjects in recent years. Due to different quality levels of video tutorials are used in different learning subjects , mixed results on the effect of video tutorials are produced (Ploetzner, R., & Lowe, R., 2012). In the area of software training, Van der Meij, H & Van der Meij, J (2013) advocated eight guidelines for the design of instructional videos (see Figure1). Subsequently, a video tutorial on Microsoft Word Formatting is developed based on the eight design guidelines. A comparison of the software training between in paper-based manual and in instructional video is conducted. Since video tutorials possess the advantages of multimedia representation, congruence between screen animation and task execution, and easy-to-follow model, it is demonstrated that the video tutorial is a superior instructional medium in software training. Despite of the advantages of using video tutorial for software training, there are still some limitations, i.e. passive processing, lack of structure overview, and pace uncontrollability (Van der Meij, H., & Van der Meij, J., 2014). The eight design guidelines for software training in some degree overcome the disadvantages of video tutorials, e.g., the inclusion of user control to prevent learners’ passive processing and the inclusion preview before demonstration to provide the overall structure. Systematic application of guidelines in real context are still lacking, hence more scientific experiments to verify the guidelines are called for conducting (Rosen, et al., 2010). Van der Meij, H & Van der Meij, J (2014) indicated that the assumed critically instructional 5

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feature of preview was an issue for further study. In order to fill the gap between scientific theory and practical application, this study contributed to the existing literature regarding the effectiveness of the video tutorial for software training, especially instructional feature of preview on self-efficacy, task performance and learning. Preview the task, which was the fourth guideline advocated by Van der Meij, H. and Van der Meij, J in 2013 (see figure 1). It comprises three sub-guidelines: a) promote the goal; b) use a conversation style to enhance perception of task relevance; c) introduce new concepts by showing their use in context. Generally speaking, preview is considered to have three roles in the video tutorial: goal promoting, cognitive load reducing, and motivation stimulating. However, whether the video tutorial of Microsoft Word formatting, especially the preview, are effective in real learning context have not been tested yet. Therefore, the purpose of this research is to investigate the effectiveness of video tutorial of Microsoft Word formatting and preview on students’ selfefficacy, task performance and learning. This study is conducted by comparing students’ self-efficacy questionnaires, pre-test, immediate post-test, delayed post-test, and transfer test through video tutorial on Microsoft Word formatting with preview and without preview. The article consists of five chapters. Chapter one introduced the research topic and purpose, theoretical foundation which the study was based on, research questions and hypotheses. Chapter two described the experimental participants and related instruments used in this research. Chapter three showed the statistical results from experiments. After that, the discussion and alternative explanations of the results were presented in Chapter four. Chapter five summarized a final conclusion of this research and further research suggestion.

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Figure 1. Eight guidelines for the design of video tutorial for software training (Source: van der Meij & van der Meij, 2013). 1.2. Observational learning and Demonstration-Based Training

An important theoretical foundation for the construction of the video tutor ial in this study is Bandura’s (1986) social cognitive theory and his views on observational learning. According to this theory a large proportion of an individual’s knowledge is acquired through directly observing others. In other words, people learn from observing a model of task performance. However, a modelled task performance may be insufficient for people to perceive and abstract the pertinent knowledge for learning. Therefore, Demonstration-Based Training (DBT) was developed, which aimed to develop specific knowledge, skills and altitudes through the systematic design and use of complementary instructional features (Rosen, et al., 2010). In DBT, these features are coupled to the four key processes involved in observational learning, as distinguished by Bandura (1986). These processes are discussed

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below, along with (a selection of) the corresponding instructional features that aim to support these processes. Attentional processes. Attention refers to the process of observers selectively attending to specific observable actions according to their accessibility, relevance, complexity, and functional value (Bandura, 1986). Attentional processes are the first step in observational learning. They influence retention, production and motivational processes. Due to human’s limited cognitive capacity of working memory, attention must be directed to the most essential part in a task accomplishment. Irrelevant information can usually be neglected. Two instructional features that can initiate and sustain attention are narration, and highlighting (Grossman et al. 2013). Both features were employed to construct the videos in the present study. In addition, we discuss user control and video pacing & length. Narration is defined as the spoken text that accompanies the dynamic display of the user’s actions on the software (i.e., Microsoft Word version 2007). The narration in the video came from a human voice rather than being computer -generated. In addition, the narration came from a female speaker who was a native Mandarin speaker. It was synchronized between the narration and the animation. According to the dual-coding theory, people have separate channels for processing visual and auditory information, and the information from these two channels can be converted mutually (Paivio, 1986). Text and picture can thus strengthen each other. But this occurs only when there is synchronisation. The content of the narration concentrated on the two necessary components in procedural discourse, namely goals, and actions & reactions (Van der Meij and Van der Meij, 2013). Goal information informed the viewers about the aim of the modelled actions. The action & reaction information concentrated on task execution. In the action-part the user was told how to give action input (e.g., mouse clicks). In the reaction-part the user was told what happened on the screen. Narration was considered

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a convenient and effective method to direct learners’ attention (Bandura, 1986). In addition, Swarts (2012) demonstrated that learners are more like to watch a video tutorial with narration than videos without spoken comments. Highlighting or signalling is a kind of instructional feature that guides learners’ cognitive processing toward relevant information by verbal or visual symbols (Mautone & Mayer, 2001). There are various signalling techniques that can be used in video tutorials. From these options we chose to employ colour coding and zooming. In colour coding the learners’ attention is drawn by using a red arrow or circle. Zooming means that the change of perspective on the user interface. Zoom in is used to focus on a part of the interface. Zoom-in is beneficial for readability. It facilitates recognition of objects and legibility of on-screen text, among others. Zooming also has the advantage of being faithful to the actual interface in the animation. Van der Meij and Van der Meij, (2013) suggest that zooming is recommended when the visibility is low. On the one hand, zooming can draw the learners’ attention to a critical part on the screen; on the other hand, the zoomed image of task demonstration can become much clearer. Bouheix and Guignard (2005) demonstrated that signalling cues improved learning significant, especially when the user has control over the presentation. Likewise, De Koning et al (2007) showed that visual cueing improved comprehension and transfer significantly. User control means that learners have the option to influence video playing (Van der Meij and Van der Meij, 2013). In this video tutorial that we study, learners are able to start, pause, stop, restart and turn backward or forward the video. The control enables learners adjust their viewing to their attentional processes. Tabbers and de Koeijer (2010) found that user control led to significantly better transfer performances but not more retention. Moreover, the effectiveness of user control influenced by the characteristics of learners and the tutorial. Boucheix and Schneider (2009) discovered that user control improved only the

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learning of low ability learners. In addition, they showed that user control only had a positive effect on relatively complex rather those simple tasks. Video pacing refers to the speed of the video. The tutorial should demonstrate and explain task execution in just the right pace for learners (Van der Meij and Van der Meij, 2013). The pacing of the video can affect the learners’ attention processes. . If the pace is too fast, the learner may experience cognitive overload. If it is too slow, the learner may become bored, lose interest and pay less attention. One empirical study demonstrated that students’ cognitive ability was one of the factors to be considered in selecting an appropriate video pace. Higher cognitive ability students required a faster pace (Dominic et al, 2012). Various studies have investigated what might be an effective pace. Morain & Swars (2012) suggested employing a conversational tempo. But some other research demonstrated instructional videos with faster tempo are more popular and engaging (Ten Hove, P. & Van der Meij. H., 2015; Guo, P.J., Kim, J., & Rubin, R., 2014). Video length means the duration of an instructional video. In the present study, the average video length in experimental condition is 3.17 minutes; and average video length in control condition is 1.93 minutes. It was found that video of under 3 minutes yielded the highest engagement (Guo, Kim and Rubin, 2014). The videos in the present study closely approximate this time limit. Retention processes. Retention means converting concrete observations to cognitive symbols in memory that can affect future behaviour. Meaningful learning is an effective method to support retention. It generally refers to a situation in which the learner understands the information and all the relationships that exist. Meaningful learning leads an integrated representation, which facilitates retention (Mayer, 2001). Therefore, instructional features that promote meaningful learning are essential to enhance retention. The video tutorial in this

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study employed five instructional features to support retention process, respectively narration, segmentation, pause & natural breaks, and simple-to-complex sequencing. Narration is the spoken text that accompanies the animation. The narration in the video tutorial helps the learner to understand the demonstration by explaining the procedure and providing background information that helps the learners make sense of the demonstrated performance. Dual coding theory and multimedia learning theory both support the role of narration in enhancing understanding and learning (Paivio, 1986; Mayer, 2001 Segmentation indicates that each video in the tutorial is divided into manageable and meaningful segments. The segmentation in the tutorial is reflected in the task of creating a table of content which was split into three smaller videos: styling the main headings, styling the subheadings and creating an automatic table of content. The first two videos are the prerequisites for accomplishing the third one. The segmentation helped learners in gradually gaining knowledge and skill without causing cognitive overload. Moreno (2009) demonstrated that segmentation significantly improved retention of practical skills. It was discovered that segmented animation led to significantly more learning only for learners with low prior knowledge. Two explanation of the segmentation effect were given. One, segmentation gave learners extra time to engage in cognitive processes. Two, segmentation demarcated the overall structure of the information for the learner (Spanjers et al, 2011; Spanjers et al, 2012). Pause & natural breaks, refer to a temporary stop or rest in a demonstration. During a break the visual image is kept still and there is no narration. The video tutorial systematically employs such breaks. After completion of a step in a procedure the video runs on for 2 seconds without giving new verbal or visual information. Thereafter the next step automatically follows. After ...