Textbook notes for Influence by Robert Cialdini, chapters 4, 6-8 PDF

Preview

Summary

Second set of textbook notes for Influence by Robert Cialdini...

Description

Chapter 4 – Social Proof -

-

-

-

-

-

-

Canned laughter causes audience to laugh longer and more often Social proof: we determine what is correct by finding out what other people think is correct o View a behaviour as correct in a given situation to the extent we see others performing it Bandura studies using social proof o Kids no longer afraid of dog when watching another child play with a dog o Even with kids exceptionally afraid, a video tape of other children playing with their dogs worked just fine  Social proof works best when it is provided by the actions of many other people O’Connor study o Showing isolated children video of similar children who begin to be actively involved with other children, even just once, was enough to cause these children to become actively involved themselves Doomsday cult in Chicago o When they lost physical proof, created social proof  Had given up so much for their beliefs, so needed them to be true  The more people they could get to believe, the more true it would seem to them and thus diminish their uncertainty Guy who invented shopping carts hired shoppers to wheel carts through store as social proof o Customers began to use them too In examining the reactions of others to resolve our own uncertainty, we are likely to overlook one fact: those people are probably examining the social evidence too In an ambiguous situation, the tendency for everyone to be looking to see what everyone else is doing can lead to a phenomenon known as pluralistic ignorance o Explains the failure of entire groups of bystanders to aid victims in agonizing need of help The Genovese incident o Originally blamed a lack of apathy in viewers o Psychologists speculated that no one helped precisely because there were so many observers  Two reasons why this occurs  First, with several potential helpers, the personal responsibility of each individual is reduced  The second reason has to do with social proof and involves the pluralistic ignorance effect

Very often an emergency is not an emergency; in times of uncertainty, the natural tendency is to look at the actions of others for clues  Easy to forget that everyone else is doing the same, but trying to appear poised and unflustered  Therefore, everyone sees everyone else looking unflustered and failing to act; as a result, the event is interpreted as a nonemergency May very well be that someone in need of emergency aid would have better chance of survival if there is one bystander present than a crowd of bystanders o Performed research in which they staged emergency events observed by a single individual or group of people, and then recorded number of times the emergency victim received help o In first experiment, New York college student who appeared to be having an epileptic seizure received help more often when a single bystander was present than when five bystanders were  With almost all single bystanders helping, hard to argue we live in a cold society where no one cares o In another study, single individuals who observed smoke seeping from under a door were more likely to report the leak than those in groups of three  Groups of three reported even less when coached individuals in the group ignored the smoke Social scientists now have a good idea of when bystanders will offer emergency aid o First, need to establish that it is an emergency and the individual requires help  A set of accidents involving a maintenance man were staged; when it was clear the man was hurt and required assistance, was helped 100 percent of the time, and 90 percent of the time when helping him involved dangerous contact  In addition, these high levels of assistance occurred whether there were individual bystanders or groups of them o Situation becomes different when bystanders not sure they are witnessing an emergency; then, look to others for social proof  Victim is more likely to be helped by a lone bystander in this case  Especially true if the people are strangers; the pluralistic ignorance effect is strongest among strangers as we like to look graceful and sophisticated in public and we are unfamiliar with the reactions of those we do not know, thus making us unlikely to give off or correctly read expressions of concerns in a group of strangers Close look at this set of research reveals that all conditions that decrease a bystander’s likelihood to offer aid exist in the city in contrast to rural areas o Cities are more rapidly changing places where it is difficult to be sure of the nature of events 

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

o Urban environments more populous; therefore, more likely to be with others when witnessing an emergency o City dwellers know a much smaller percentage of residents; therefore, more likely to find themselves in a group of strangers In general, the best strategy when in need of emergency help is to reduce the uncertainties of those around you concerning your condition and their responsibilities o Be as precise as possible about your need for aid o Let them know it is an emergency, they are responsible for helping, and exactly how they can help Have already established social proof works best in situations of uncertainty; also works in situations of similarity o Social proof works most powerfully when we are observing the behaviour of people just like us Similarity may explain why we are seeing an increasing number of average-person-onthe-street testimonials on TV these days Evidence from research o In a study of a fund-raising effort conducted on a college campus, donations to charity more than doubled when the requester claimed to be similar, saying “I go here too” o School based anti-smoking programs have lasting effects only when same-age peers are teachers o Children seeing a film of another child’s positive visit to the dentist lowered their own dental anxieties when they were the same age as the child in the film Author’s example of his son and swimming without a plastic ring Following certain kinds of highly publicized suicide stories, number of people who die in airline crashes increases by 1,000 percent; even more alarming, the increase is not limited to airplane deaths, as the number of automobile fatalities shoots up as well o One explanation is that the same social conditions that cause some people to commit suicide cause others to die accidentally; certain individuals may react stressfully to societal events by committing suicide, while others may become angry, impatient, nervous, etc. o However, increases in fatal crashes occur only in those regions where the suicide has been highly publicized; other places, under similar social conditions, whose newspapers have not publicized the story, have shown no comparable increases  Also, the wider the publicity, the greater the rise in crashes o It is then the publicized suicide story itself that produces the car and plane wrecks  Bereavement theory: front-page stories often involve well-known and respected figures, which may send people into a state of shock  This can account for connection of degree of publicity and number of crash fatalities  However, cannot explain that newspaper stories reporting suicide victims who died alone produce an increase in the frequency of

-

-

-

-

single-fatality wrecks only, while those that report suicide-plusmurder incidents produce an increase in multiple-fatality wrecks only o Then, must find an explanation to account for why when one person dies (and subsequent newspaper reporting of the issue occurs), increase in fatalities where one person dies, and when multiple people die, increase in fatalities where multiple people die  The Werther effect: the idea that other people who read another’s selfinflicted death kill themselves in imitation  Demonstrated by the fact that the suicide rate increases dramatically following a highly publicized suicide in those geographic areas where the suicide has been publicized  Also accounts for the airplane and car crash fatalities  Some people do not want to appear they have killed themselves, so do so in indirect ways  Can be chalked up to hidden instances of the Werther effect Valuable features of the Werther effect o Allows us to predict new facts  If the fatalities are a result of imitative rather than accidental actions, they should be more deadly as a result  Evidence from the fact that victims of fatal car wrecks that follow front-page suicide stories die four times more quickly than normal  Another prediction: if the fatalities truly represent copycat deaths, then the imitators should be most likely to copy suicides of people who are similar  Evidence from the fact that when the suicide stories detailed young victims, it was young drivers who then piled their cars into trees; when suicide story was of an older person, it was then older drivers Further research brings more cause for alarm o Homicides in the country have a stimulated, copycat character after highly publicized acts of violence  Championship prize fights that receive news coverage produce increases in homicide rates  Specific nature of the imitation – when a black man loses, increases in black victims; when a white man loses, increases in white victims o Widely publicized aggression has the tendency to spread to similar victims, whether inflicted on the self or on another Also copycat crime as well as copycat mass murder o Similar social conditions is again not a solid explanation o Social proof is the explanation, exerting that people, especially those unsure of themselves, follow the lead of similar others Jonestown mass suicide o The relocation from California to South America in the rainforests of Guyana o This dissimilar environment caused them to look to similar others for social proof

-

o Two pieces of social evidence  The initial set of compatriots, who quickly and willingly took the poison  Also, pluralistic ignorance Some insights into the way we respond to social proof o For one, we assume if a lot of people are doing the same thing, they must know something we don’t o Quite frequently the crowd we follow is mistaken, not acting on the basis of any superior information, but reacting to social proof themselves

Chapter 6 – Authority -

-

-

-

Milgram study o Gender as an explanation  No gender differences in compliance o Unaware of the intensity of the shock?  Another experiment done in which the participant claims to have a heart condition, and no differences in results o Sadistic participants?  Very presentative of the average population  Not a hint of psychosis among participants Evidence for authority o Without researcher’s directions, subjects would not have continued o In another experiment, researcher and victim switched scripts; in this situation, 100 percent of participants refused to give even one more shock o In another version, researcher in chair and subject telling them to continue delivering shocks; again, 100 percent of participants would not continue o In another version, two researchers with conflicting instructions; in this case, subjects had to abandon authority and go with their own instincts, so no one continued to administer shocks  More evidence against sadism, as clearly was not due to personal motivation Findings tell us about the implications of authority and the sheer strength it possesses in controlling our behaviour Another example is the story of the men protesting shipments of military equipment who laid out on train tracks; crew ordered not to stop and so did not, even when they saw the protestors ahead Multilayered and widely accepted system of authority o Taught since birth that obedience is right o Biblical reference to authority o Conforming to authority figures has always had genuine advantages  Parents always knew more than us, and taking their advice proved beneficial

As adults, makes sense to comply to authority figures because their positions speak of greater access and power In medicine, will often not question judgements of the doctor even when he is wrong; instead, respond without thinking o E.g. The earache example; neither patient nor nurse questioned this Compliance professionals taking advantage o Using actor who played former doctor to advertise caffeine-free product o MasterCard “Family Holiday Tradition” tactic Even just the appearance of authority is enough; we are as vulnerable to symbols of authority as to the substance itself Titles o Are the most difficult and easiest symbols of authority to require o Can easily influence behaviour of others o Prestigious titles can lead to height distortions  Cambridge University study in which the visitor was introduced as either a student, demonstrator, lecturer, senior lecturer or professor  Grew in perceived height by an average of a half inch with each progression in title  Also, after winning an election, politicians become taller in the eyes of the citizenry  Animals try to appear bigger to win status level o Two lessons regarding height and status  Connection can be profitably employed: can fake height to gain appearance of status  E.g. Con artists wear lifts in their shoes  The outward signs of power and authority can be counterfeited with the flimsiest of materials, such as a title  E.g. The nurse experiment where they were told to administer lethal dosages Clothes o Also an authority symbol that can trigger mechanical compliance o In one study, a requester asked various requests of others, either normally dressed or wearing a security guard uniform  Regardless of task, more compliance when in guard uniform  Held true for both genders o In another version, asked pedestrians to give another man money for his parking meter  Then walked away  Even when out of sight, the power of his uniform lasted  Interesting that college students, when guessing compliance, correctly guessed so when he was dressed normally, but significantly underestimated compliance when he wore the uniform 

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

o A business suit can also indicate authority  Had a man jaywalk wearing either a suit of normal attire  Pedestrians much more likely to follow the man wearing a suit o Both types of apparel are combined by con artists in a fraud called bank examiner scheme Trappings o Finely styled and expensive clothes carry an aura of status and position, as do similar trappings such as jewellery and cars o According to one study, owners of prestigious autos receive a special kind of deference from others  Motorists will wait significantly longer before honking their at a new, luxury car stopped in front of a green traffic light than at an older, economy model  Honked horns multiple times at economy model, and two even rammed into rear bumper  College students significantly underestimated the time it would take to honk at the luxury car Property of authority to be underestimated may account for much of its success as a compliance device o Works forcefully and unexpectedly Important to get evidence for authority o Also to distinguish between relevant and irrelevant authorities Also important to establish sincerity of authority figure o Will often use a tactic in which they argue against some of their own interest, in order to make the rest of their argument seem more believable Example of the waiter Vincent o Appeared as an expert and seemed to work against his own interests, making him appear sincere

Chapter 7 – Scarcity Less Is Best and Loss Is Worst - Students rated cafeteria food better second time, after learning they could not eat there for two weeks - As a rule, if an item is rare or becoming rare, it is more valuable - Phenomenon of the “precious mistake” o Flawed items are the most valued of all o Imperfections that would otherwise make for rubbish make for prized possessions when they bring along a component of scarcity - People seem to be more motivated by the thought of losing something than of gaining something of equal value

-

-

-

o College students stronger emotions when asked to imagine losses as opposed to gains in romantic relationships or grade point averages Especially under conditions of risk and uncertainty, the threat of potential loss plays a powerful role in decision making o Medical pamphlets more successful if state case in terms of what stands to be lost rather than gained o In business, managers weight potential losses more heavily than gains Limited numbers o Most straightforward use of scarcity principle is “limited number” tactic o Use of scarcity principle in appliance store  Telling couple item is no longer available, thus making them want it more Time Limits o The “deadline” tactic in which some official time limit is placed on the opportunity o Some customers told they have to purchase item now or will have to pay a higher price later or won’t be able to get it at all o Vacuum sales example – “can’t come back”

Psychological Reactance - Power of scarcity principle comes from two sources o Uses our weakness for shortcuts; we know things that are difficult to get are usually better than those that are easy to get o Unique, secondary source of power: as opportunities become less available, we lose freedoms  Desire to preserve our established prerogatives is center of the psychological reactance theory, which explains human response to diminishing personal control: whenever free choice is limited or threatened, the need to retain our freedoms makes us want them more than we did before  Study on the “terrible twos”  Boys who had a barrier to a toy were more likely to want that toy than boys who did not have the barrier, as they showed no preference for choice in toy  Shows that psychological resistance emerges at the age of two, as at this age are just beginning to recognize themselves as individuals - Adult Reactance: Loves, Guns, and Suds o Time when psychological reactance takes an especially rebellious form is the teenage years o The “Romeo and Juliet effect”  Social psychologist would say this is due to the role of parental interference and the psychological reactance it can cause

Researchers in one study found that although parental interference was linked to some problems in the relationship, it made the pair feel greater love for each other and desire for marriage  As interference intensified, so did the love experience; as it weakened, the romantic feelings cooled o The gun law example  Only those who had not been restricted by the law had the inclination to live by it, as guns were massively purchased by those out of town but not by those who the law was directed at o Similar situation in Miami when law was passed prohibiting use and possession of laundry cleaning products containing phosphates  Citizens reacted by loading up on phosphate detergents  Also, came to see the product as better than they did before o Rarely recognize that psychological reactance has caused us to want an item more, just know we want it  To make sense of this desire, we begin to assign it positive qualities Censorship o Our response to banned information is to want to receive information even more than before and to become more favourable towards it  Become to believe the information more, even though they have not yet received it o In one study, speech opposing coed dorms was banned  Made students become more opposed to the idea of coed dorms; had not yet heard the speech, but were already sympathetic to its arguments o In another study, students shown advertisement for a novel  For half the students, read an age restriction on the book of 21 and over; for the other half, no age restriction  Those who learned of the age restriction wanted to read the book and thought they would like it more than those who had no such restrictions on access o Evidence ruled admissible by a judge may cause psychological resistance by jurors, leading them to use the evidence to a greater extent o We will find ...