The Haitian Revolution succeeded because of superb leadership PDF

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The essay argued that other factors like the ongoing French Revolution and the presence of the diseases are factors that led to the success of the Haitian Revolution but it was the super leadership of Toussaint that laid the roots for the success. ...

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“The Haitian slaves succeeded primarily because of the presence of the leadership of Toussaint.”

The Saint Domingue Revolution 1791-1804 stands today as the only successful slave insurrection in West Indian history having the state as a mark of success. Fighting for thirteen years of depressing warfare through this revolution, the slaves were able to introduce decolonization, removal of slavery and an attempt to racial equality into the West indies ending 300 years of French Dominance. Fully embodying the ideals of ‘Liberty, Equality and Fraternity’ the success of the Haitian slaves hinges on many factors. It can be argued that the French Revolution and diseases contributed to the success of the Haitian slaves but it was the presence of the leadership of Toussaint L’Ouverture that made the Revolution a success. In this essay the writer will expound on how the French Revolution and Diseases contributed to the Haitian slaves’ success and how Toussaint L’Ouverture acted as the primary reason for the success of the Haitian slaves. Disease was a factor contributing to the success of the Haitian slaves in the Revolution. Once the revolution was in swing European troops – British and French were sent to the colony with hopes of trying to retain the slave system and to prevent the black revolution from spreading into other colonies. Once war raged so did diseases in the form of yellow fever and malaria. These diseases proved to be a problem firstly because of lack of immunity among the European troops. The regiments that came to Saint Domingue according to Buckley (99) had poor health and inadequate diet along with confinement on unsanitary ships.1 And so when they arrived in Saint Domingue, being exposed to a disease

1 Roger Norman Buckley, Slaves in Red Coats: The British West India Regiments 1795-1815 (New Haven & London: Yale University Press, 1979),99

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environment for the first time they fell to these infectious diseases and many died. Secondly these diseases proved to be a problem as according to Geggus (411) Toussaint and the black army cunningly engaged the Europeans in the wet season and in the low lands.2 Toussaint knew that disease would rage during this time and location, so fighting at this time without immunity to these diseases would result in the Europeans catching the diseases. In cases where they were already contaminated, the soldiers couldn’t fight giving 100%. Fourthly, specifically in 1801, when the French army was about to invade the colony to reinitiate slavery, according to James (296), Toussaint burnt towns of a value of 100 francs, and out of 2000 houses only 59 remained.3 In doing this a mosquito laden environment was created as the towns were desolate and diseases were caught easily. This put the French troops at grave disadvantageous in the end. These diseases resulted in death among the troops. Geggus (412) notes that during the British’s five-year occupation in Saint Domingue 15,000 out of 25,000 were lost due to diseases.4 With regards to the French, James (349) quotes General Leclerc in his letter back to France where it stated in 1802 he was losing some 100 to 200 soldiers daily from diseases.5 The blacks were immune to these diseases and were larger in number Bryan (9) notes there were 450,000 blacks.6 Because of the distance of Saint Domingue to Europe it would take longer to get more soldiers for their army where depletion occurred. And so the ability of the blacks to outnumber and outlive the whites was evident. Because of diseases, European troops didn’t find the need to continue the fight. Diseases was a factor which

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"David Geggus, “The Haitian Revolution” in Caribbean Slave Society and Economy: A Student Reader. Hilary Beckles and Verene Shepherd. (Kingston: Ian Randle, 1991), 411" 3 C.L.R James, The Black Jacobins: Toussaint L’Ouverture and the San Domingo Revolution. (New York: Vintage Book, 1989), 296 4 David Geggus, “The Haitian Revolution” in Caribbean Slave Society and Economy, 412 5 C.L.R James, The Black Jacobins: Toussaint L’Ouverture and the San Domingo Revolution, 349 6 Patrick Bryan, The Haitian Revolution and its effects (Oxford: Heinemann Educational Publishers, 1984),16

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contributed to the success of the Haitian slaves as it depleted the European troops and when they couldn’t resupply their army as quickly and so the Haitians slaves usually outnumbered them in battle. The French Revolution 1789-1799 was another factor that contributed to the success of the Haitian slaves in the Revolution. The French Revolution grew out of social inequality amongst the social classes in France. With enlightened ideas in the air, philosophers pinned the slogan, ‘Liberty, Equality and Fraternity’ wanting equality for all. Sherman and Salisbury opines that this slogan “proved to be so potent that its impact spread far beyond the borders of France.” 7 This slogan seeped into Saint Domingue proving to be very influential thereby starting the uproar as the society desired the same terms of the slogan. They held the idea that ‘if France could do it, we could do it too.’ They then seized the opportunity to fight against their restrictions. A strike-torn France with the ongoing French Revolution provided the distraction the slaves needed. France had to take care of the disruption within her borders and so when the Haitian Revolution began, Geggus (407) tells us that a small militia, of approximately 6,000 was sent to the colony to quell the uprising.8 With the population of the black army it was hopeless to stop the uprising. If the French Revolution wasn’t ongoing one could assume that more attention and a larger army could have been sent to the colony to stop the uprising. With such the slaves were able to make progressive actions to remove slavery and colonialism, planting the ideologies of the revolution among the masses. Although the success of the Haitian slaves hinges on the French Revolution and Diseases they are not the primary factors which led to the Haitian slaves’ success. The French 7

"See Dennis Sherman and Joyce Salisbury. The West in the World. 5th . Vol. 1. (New York: McGraw-Hill Education, 2002)

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"David Geggus, “The Haitian Revolution” in Caribbean Slave Society and Economy, 407"

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Revolution ended in 1799 and so more attention was turned back to Saint Domingue. According to Geggus (415) Napoleon Bonaparte, sent an army of 20,000 headed by Leclerc in 1802 to stop the revolution with hopes of initiating slavery which was abolished in 1793 and reap the benefits once again from this profitable colony.9 As such, the Haitian slaves had to be prepared to fight another contingent. With that being said the French Revolution contributed to the success of the Haitian slaves because it provided partial distraction which the slaves needed but cannot be seen as the primary reason because this distraction wasn’t always there. With regards to the Diseases, historians like Geggus has written immensely as to the advantage that diseases played in the revolution but diseases alone cannot kill out an entire troop. Additionally, these European Troops fought in other parts of the Caribbean in other rebellions like in in Barbados 1816 and Jamaica 183. They were attacked by disease but still defeated the blacks. The difference between this revolution and other rebellions was the leadership it had. Laying the roots of the revolution Toussaint L’Ouverture’s leadership was the decisive factor in the Revolution and can be seen as the primary factor for the success of the Haitian slaves. Every revolution needs a leader, just like Fidel Castro in the successful Cuban revolution, Toussaint was the leader, showing the way and going the way and keeping the ideologies of the revolution fiery in the hearts of the masses. He proved to contradict the views of Historians Hoyos, Green and Craton, who argued that slaves were sunk in a mental stage of stagnation. Toussaint held many characteristics which allowed him to lead the Haitian slaves to defeat the French. He utilized guerilla tactics and rapid movements, formed vital alliances, maintained a steady war economy and guaranteed the freedom of others and

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"David Geggus, “The Haitian Revolution” in Caribbean Slave Society and Economy, 415"

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with these characteristics he was able to set the ground work for the success of the Haitian slaves. Toussaint’s use of guerrilla tactics was one factor which led to the success of the Haitian slaves. Guerilla tactics involves the utilization of a small unit to attack a large one. The guerilla army, the black army attacked far from the Europeans to strain them and reduce their own causalities. Toussaint and the black army were famous for this, Ralph (111) quotes Metral a general, who said “he disappears – he has flown- as if by magic. Now he reappears again where he is least expected. One never knows where his army is, what it subsists on, how he manages to recruit it, in what mountain fastness he has hidden his supplies and his treasury. He, on the other hand, seems perfectly informed concerning everything that goes on in the enemy camp.” 10 Toussaint and his army were able to endure and were capable in their surprise attacks and in exploiting terrain which in turn made it hard to pin them down. They were fighting on home land and took advantage of the mountainous terrain which the French and British were not familiar to. In doing so, the Europeans never knew when to be ready and when these attacks were launched they would face a lot of destruction. Toussaint and the black army’s ability to launch and utilize guerrilla tactics stands as one factor which made the Haitian slaves successful. Toussaint’s formation of vital alliances was another factor which led to the success of the Haitian slaves. Toussaint was diplomatic and manipulated the situation for him and his army’s advantage by forming alliances with European nations and the United States. The French, British and Spanish all thought well of him and as such he was able to take advantage of the situation from all angles. According to Geggus (411), he convinced the French general that he was fighting hard for the republic, while he promised allegiance to the British army

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"Ralph Korngold, Citizen Toussaint (New York: Hill and Wang, 1944),111"

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and assured the Spaniards that the army’s mishaps were the blacks fault.11 With these alliances reaped rewards. Geggus (410) tells us that he received training for his soldiers, arms, ammunition and also uniforms. While specifically playing ‘loyal’ to the French, governor Laveaux made him governor of the colony. With such superior control he was then able to remove all the rivals within the colony.12 An important alliance was formed in 1769 between Saint Domingue, Britain and the United states. Trade was re-established between the United States and Saint Domingue and Britain was to share in these commercial privileges as well. According to Fick (201) this was in exchange to protect Haiti against French privateer attack on the sea. Also, through this alliance according to Berger (127) Toussaint would receive 30,000 muskets and numerous amount of ammunition from Britain and the United States.13 This aided in sustaining and equipping the black army to success which under Toussaint grew from hundreds to thousands. These alliances proved to be vital, as Toussaint ensured to reap benefits for him and the Haitian slaves thereby leading them to success. Toussaint and his army’s utilization of rapid movement on the battle field is another factor which led the Haitian slaves to success. Toussaint ensured that him and his army were not clustered with too much clothing and baggage that would keep them back in battle. Historians like Ralph (110) opines that the success of the Haitian slaves was mainly due to the fact that they were unencumbered. Ralph (110) went on to quote Laveaux, the French general who wrote, “they have neither coats. Nor shirts, nor trousers, barely a few rags that do not cover a twentieth part of their bodies.”14 During the course of a day they could have covered and defeated 72 kilometers of land and 52 kilometers in the mountains. The French

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David Geggus, “The Haitian Revolution” in Caribbean Slave Society and Economy, 411 David Geggus, “The Haitian Revolution” in Caribbean Slave Society and Economy, 13 Mark T Berger, From Nation-Building to State-Building (Oxon: Routledge, 2008),127" 14 "Ralph Korngold, Citizen Toussaint,110" 12

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and British soldiers on the other hand according to Buckley (84), wore coats with lapels, collars and cuffs. These coats were completed by short black hessian – styled garters which came to a point in the front and behind and a large hat with a large shaggy bear skin lapel crest that ran the full length of the head piece.15 Along with this cumbersome uniform they always had baggage with fighting equipment during battle especially since they weren’t on home land; they didn’t have the advantage of knowing the best places to hide their tools. One historian notes that in the wet season their cannons would usually get stuck in the mud, stopping their pace. This proved to be advantageous as these European troops would be ‘kept back’ in comparison to the black slaves who could move more rapidly across the terrain. Toussaint and his army’s utilization of rapid movement accounts for the Haitian slaves’ success. Toussaint ensured that Saint Domingue had a war economy and so the Haitian slaves were successful. A war economy is when during times of war a nation’s economy remains in good standing. In most circumstances where war is ongoing in a society this does not happen and the economy is hampered but Toussaint ensured that although the masses were fighting that there was still a strong economy. A strong army and the rising of blacks was significant as it brought status and power but according to James (155), Toussaint saw early that political power is only a direction to the ‘end’ as society couldn’t strive on that alone.16 A war economy was necessary to provide modern weaponry needed to defeat the French. To get this weaponry Toussaint proclaimed according to James (155-156), “work is necessary, it is a virtue, it is for the general good of the state.”17 He emphasized that blacks should return back to agriculture, forcibly as that was foundation of the society. With this he

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"Roger Norman Buckley, Slaves in Red Coats: The British West India Regiments 1795-1815, 84" "C.L.R James, The Black Jacobins: Toussaint L’Ouverture and the San Domingo Revolution, 155" 17 "C.L.R James, The Black Jacobins: Toussaint L’Ouverture and the San Domingo Revolution, 155-156" 16

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joined hands with the whites to make this happen. Many criticized Toussaint and his actions. One of Toussaint’s successors, Henry Christophe stood out in opposition. Ralph (113) quotes Christophe who spoke of Toussaint saying, “he was favorable to the white colonists, and the care and partiality which felt for them went so far that he was severely censured as being more attached to them than to people of his colour.” Despite such Toussaint felt that this cooperation was vital and you couldn’t hold past wrongs against the whites. First and foremost, the whites provided the capital, they had the capital that could be used to build the economy. These whites also had relationships with merchants in France to continue trade externally. In that era, realistically no one would have been willing to trade with a black man much less a state controlled by all blacks. Additionally, whites were capable of managing resources – mainly the plantation which the blacks knew nothing of especially on a large scale. This cooperation would allow the economy to thrive and keep trade going and provide the black army with necessary equipment to carry on the fight. So with ensuring a war economy, Toussaint laid the ground work for the success of the Haitian slaves as without capital to provide weaponry they’d be doomed to fail. By leading the revolution directly utilizing guerilla tactics and rapid movement, forming vital alliances and maintaining a steady war economy Toussaint could be seen as the primary reason for the success of the Haitian slaves as these tactics were consistent and laid the roots of the revolution. Even so despite all the tactics used, Toussaint L’Ouverture was captured and removed from St. Domingue in 1802 by Napoleon’s army who was sent to reestablish slavery in the colony. His removal although he led the masses thus far, did not stop the revolution. Jean Jacques Dessalines and Henry Christophe, military commanders, who had taken part in the revolution now became the leaders. These new leaders transformed

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the struggle into one of national independence. After capturing Toussaint, they held the view that whites were the enemy and at all cost must be defeated. The thought of Napoleon, re-enslaving the blacks acted as a positive catalyst, and so the blacks were willing to fight to protect the freedom they received in 1793. These two war generals and the black slaves fought and defeated the French soldiers Napoleon sent declaring independence on 1 January 1804 banning slavery and colonialism a new colony called Haiti. Abolishing ideologies of the Old World the Saint Domingue Revolution stands today as the only successful black revolution. Its success hinges on contributory factors of the presence of Disease and distraction from the French Revolution. It has been argued that these factors were inconsistent as the French Revolution provided partial distraction but after 1799, France’s attention was returned back to the colony. Diseases were also inconsistent as diseases alone cannot kill an army. It was however the leadership and tactics put in place by Toussaint which acts as the primary reason for the success of the Haitian slaves. He led the Haitian slaves to success by utilizing guerilla tactics and rapid movemet, forming allies and ensuring a war economy. Although he was captured and couldn’t lead the fight to the end, embodying these features he was able to lead the revolution and lay the ground work for its success. If he didn’t lay the roots when captured the revolution would have been easily quelled. At this point the ideologies of the revolution were clear and the slaves knew what they were fighting for and so when Dessalines and Christophe took up the mantle they were able to defeat the French and declare independence in 1804. Shifting colonialism into decolonization, the Haitians protected their freedom and independence and ruined French rule in the colony.

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Bibliography Beard, John. Toussaint L'Ouverture A Biography and Autobiography. Boston: James Redpath Publisher, 1863. Berger, Mark T., ed. From Nation-Building to State-Building . Oxon: Routledge, 2008. Blackburn, Robin. The Overthrow of Colonial Slavery 1776-1848. London: Verso, 1988. Buckley, Roger Norman. Slaves in Red Coats: The British West India Regiments, 1795-1815. New Haven and London: Yale University Press, 1979. Fick, Carolyn E. The Making of Haiti: The Saint Domingue Revolution from Below. 1st. Knoxville: The University of Tennesse Press, 1990. Fick, Carolyn E. "The Saint Domingue Slave Insurrection of 1791: A Socio-Political and Cultural Analysis." Caribbean Slavery in the Atlantic World. Ed. Verene Shepherd and Hilary McD. Beckles . Kingston: Ian Randle Publishers Limited, 2000. Geggus, David. "The Haitian Revolution." Caribbean Slave Society and Economy: A Student Reader. Ed. Hilary Beckles and Verene Shepherd. Kingston: Ian Randle, 1991. James, C L R. The Black Jacobins, Toussaint L'Ouverture and the San Domingo Revolution. New York: Vintage Books, 1989. James, C L R. "The San Domingo Masses Begin." Caribbean Slavery in the Atlantic World. Ed. Verene Shepherd and Hilary McD. Beckles. Kingston: ...