Theories of Personalities PDF

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PERSONALITY THEORIES Submitted by: Amortizado, Jerymie C. BS Psychology 3-2 Submitted to: Prof. Serafina P. Maxino

PSYC 30093 – Abnormal Psychology

1. ABRAHAM MASLOW - HOLISTIC-DYNAMIC THEORY ● ● ●

BIRTHDATE: April 1, 1908 DIED: June 8, 1970 OVERVIEW OF HIS THEORY AND CONTRIBUTIONS

Maslow argued that each person is born with instinctoid needs that lead to growth, development, and actualization. The hierarchy of needs includes: 1. Physiological needs (for food, water, air, sleep, and sex) and the needs for safety, belongingness and love, esteem, and self-actualization. The lower needs must be satisfied before the higher needs emerge. The lower the need, the greater its strength. Lower needs are called deficit needs because failure to satisfy them produces a deficit in the body. Higher needs (growth or being needs) are less necessary for survival but enhance physical and emotional well-being. 2. Safety needs (for security, stability, order, and freedom from fear and anxiety) are most important in infants and neurotic adults. 3. Belongingness and love needs can be satisfied through association with a group or affectionate relations with one person or with people in general. 4. Esteem needs include self-esteem and esteem from others. 5. Self-actualization involves the realization of one’s potential and requires a realistic knowledge of one’s strengths and weaknesses. The needs to know and to understand form a hierarchy of cognitive needs that emerges in late infancy and early childhood. Motivation in self-actualizers (metamotivation) serves not to make up for deficits or reduce tension but to enrich life and increase tension. Metaneeds are states of growth toward which self-actualizers move. Frustration of metaneeds produces metapathology, a formless illness for which no specific cause can be identified. Self-actualizers constitute less than 1 percent of the population. They share the following characteristics: 1. Efficient perception of reality; acceptance of themselves and others; spontaneity and simplicity; 2. Focus on problems rather than self in which metaneeds are satisfied through commitment to work; 3. Privacy and independence; 4. Freshness of appreciation; 5. Peak experiences; 6. Social interest; 7. Intense interpersonal relationships; 8. Creativeness; 9. Democratic character structure; and 10. Resistance to enculturation. Not everyone becomes self-actualizing because self-actualization is the weakest need in the hierarchy and easily interfered with. Too much freedom or lack of security in childhood inhibits self-actualization. Also, some people fear realizing their highest potential, what Maslow termed the Jonah complex. Maslow’s image of human nature is optimistic, emphasizing free will,

conscious choice, uniqueness, the ability to overcome childhood experiences, and innate goodness. Personality is influenced both by heredity and by environment. Our ultimate goal is self-actualization. In his philosophy of science, Maslow argued for a Taoistic attitude, one that is non interfering, passive, receptive, and subjective. Maslow used interviews, free association, projective techniques, and biographical material to assess personality. The Personal Orientation Inventory (POI) is a self-report test to measure self-actualization. Psychotherapy should be directed at the need level currently being thwarted, in most cases love and belongingness needs. Maslow made a number of important contributions to the field of psychology. He is remembered as one of the most influential psychologists of the 20th century. Among his contributions: 1. His theories focused on the positive aspects of human nature. At a time when most psychologists focused on aspects of human nature that were considered abnormal, Abraham Maslow shifted focus to look at the positive sides of mental health. 2. His work influenced how we see mental health. His interest in human potential, peak experiences, the improvement of mental health, and personal growth had a lasting influence on psychology. 3. His work continues to exert an influence today. While Maslow’s work fell out of favor with many academic psychologists and some suggest his hierarchy might be due for an update, his theories are enjoying a resurgence due to the rising interest in positive psychology. 2. ALBERT BANDURA - SOCIAL-COGNITIVE THEORY ● ● ●

BIRTHDATE: December 4, 1925 DIED: --OVERVIEW OF HIS THEORY AND CONTRIBUTIONS

Behavior can be learned through vicarious reinforcement by observing the behavior of others and anticipating the rewards for behaving in the same way. Cognitive processes are the mediating mechanisms between stimulus and response and bring about control of behavior through self-regulation and self-reinforcement. In the classic Bobo doll study, children patterned their behavior on the model’s aggressive behavior whether the model was observed live, on television, or in a cartoon. Disinhibition involves weakening an inhibition through exposure to a model. Chance encounters and fortuitous events are two important environmental factors that influence people’s lives in unplanned and unexpected ways. Three factors that influence modeling: 1. model’s characteristics 2. observer’s characteristics 3. behavior’s reward consequences Observational learning is governed by attentional, retention, production, and incentive and motivational processes. The self is a set of cognitive processes concerned with thought and perception. Self-reinforcement requires internal performance standards against which to evaluate behavior. Self-efficacy refers to the ability to control life events. People low in selfefficacy feel helpless and give up quickly when faced with obstacles. People who score high in self-efficacy persevere at tasks and perform at a high level. Judgments of self-efficacy are based

on performance attainment, vicarious experiences, verbal persuasion, and physiological arousal. Using these information sources, it is possible to increase self-efficacy. Infants and children are reinforced primarily by physical stimuli. Older children are reinforced more by others’ approval or disapproval; this is internalized so that reinforcement becomes self-administered. In behavior therapy, models are used to demonstrate ways of coping with threatening situations. Behavior can be modified through observation and guided participation. In covert modeling, subjects imagine how a model copes with a feared situation. Bandura’s approach to behavior modification deals with overt behavior and cognitive variables, particularly self-efficacy. As self-efficacy improves during treatment, the client is increasingly able to deal with threatening situations. Behavior modification has been criticized for manipulating people against their will, but Bandura argues that with self-awareness and selfregulation, people undergoing behavior modification understand what is being reinforced. External factors provide us with standards for evaluating our behavior as well as external reinforcement in the form of rewards received from others. Internal factors in self-regulation include: 1. self-observation 2. judgmental processes 3. self-reaction Behavior is controlled by internal cognitive processes and external stimuli; a position Bandura calls reciprocal determinism. Triadic reciprocality refers to interaction among behavior, cognitive, and environmental variables. Most behavior is learned; genetic factors play a minor role. Learning in childhood may be more influential than learning in adulthood but adults are not victims of childhood experiences. Our ultimate goal is to set realistic performance standards to maintain an optimal level of self-efficacy. Self-efficacy varies with age and gender and can influence career choice, school performance, job performance, physical and mental health, and the ability to cope with stress. In addition, groups have been shown to develop collective efficacy. Computer self-efficacy strongly influences our online behavior. Four principal techniques of selective activation and disengagement of internal control are: 1. 2. 3. 4.

redefining behavior displacing or diffusing responsibility disregarding or distorting the consequences of behavior dehumanizing or blaming the victims for their injuries.

Bandura assesses behavior and cognitive variables through direct observation, self-report inventories, and physiological measures. He favors controlled laboratory investigations using large groups of subjects and statistical analysis of data. Social cognitive therapy emphasizes cognitive mediation, especially perceived self-efficacy. Bandura’s work is considered part of the cognitive revolution in psychology that began in the late 1960s. His theories have had a tremendous impact on personality psychology, cognitive psychology, education, and psychotherapy. In 1974, Bandura was elected president of the American Psychological Association. The APA awarded him for his distinguished scientific contributions in 1980 and again in 2004 for his outstanding lifetime contributions to psychology.

Today, Bandura is often identified as the greatest living psychology as well as one of the most influential psychologists of all time. In 2014, Bandura was awarded the National Medal of Science by President Barack Obama. 3. ALFRED ADLER - INDIVIDUAL PSYCHOLOGY ● ● ●

BIRTHDATE: February 7, 1870 DIED: May 28, 1937 OVERVIEW OF HIS THEORY AND CONTRIBUTIONS

Adler’s childhood was marked by intense efforts to compensate for his feelings of inferiority. His system of individual psychology differs from Freudian psychoanalysis in its focus on the uniqueness of the individual, on consciousness, and on social rather than biological forces. It minimizes the role of sex. Inferiority feelings are the source of all human striving, which results from our attempts to compensate for these feelings. Inferiority feelings are universal and are determined by the infant’s helplessness and dependency on adults. An inferiority complex (that is, an inability to solve life’s problems) results from being unable to compensate for inferiority feelings. An inferiority complex can originate in childhood through organic inferiority, spoiling, or neglect. A superiority complex (an exaggerated opinion of one’s abilities and accomplishments) results from overcompensation. Our ultimate goal is superiority or perfection; that is, making the personality whole or complete. Fictional finalism refers to fictional ideas, such as perfection, that guide our behavior. Style of life refers to unique patterns of characteristics and behaviors by which we strive for perfection. The creative power of the self refers to our ability to create ourselves from the materials provided by our heredity and environment. Four basic styles of life are the 1. 2. 3. 4.

dominant or ruling type getting type avoiding type socially useful type

Social interest is innate but the extent to which it is realized depends on early social experiences. All people, but especially neurotics, make use of various safeguarding tendencies—such as excuses, aggression, and withdrawal—as conscious or unconscious attempts to protect inflated feelings of superiority against public disgrace. Order of birth is a major social influence in childhood from which one’s style of life is created. 1. Firstborns are oriented toward the past, pessimistic about the future, and concerned with maintaining order and authority. 2. Second-borns compete with first-borns and are apt to be ambitious. 3. Last-borns, spurred by the need to surpass older siblings, may become high achievers. 4. Only children mature early but are apt to face a shock in school when they are no longer the center of attention. Adler’s image of human nature is more hopeful than is Freud’s. In Adler’s view, people are unique, and they possess free will and the ability to shape their own development. Although

childhood experiences are important, we are not victims of them. Adlerian therapy uses birth order, early recollections, and dreams to foster courage, self-esteem, and social interest. Adler’s emphasis on cognitive and social factors in personality, the unity of personality, the creative power of the self, the importance of goals, and cognitive factors has influenced many personality theorists 4. ANNA FREUD - CHILD PSYCHOANALYSIS ● ● ●

BIRTHDATE: December 3, 1895 DIED: October 9, 1982 OVERVIEW OF HER THEORY AND CONTRIBUTIONS

Anna Freud thought child analysis should stick to the basic theories of psychoanalysis, but should be distinct as a mode of therapy. She argued that children should only be analyzed when they reached the latency period, which begins around the age of six. Before that, she thought it best to focus on the child’s environment so as to support their psychosexual and emotional development, and prevent neurosis from taking root. Anna Freud emphasized the importance of establishing a strong therapeutic alliance with child patients. She was sensitive to the fact that unlike adults, who usually seek analysis voluntarily, this is rarely the case with children. This preliminary stage was intended to gain children’s attention and trust before conducting any therapy with them. She also expanded on her father's work and identified many different types of defense mechanisms that the ego uses to protect itself from anxiety. While Sigmund Freud described a number of defense mechanisms, it was his daughter Anna Freud who provided the clearest and most comprehensive look at mechanisms of defense in her book The Ego and the Mechanisms of Defense (1936). A fundamental principle of Anna Freud’s work is that every child should be recognized as a person in his or her own right. She was interested in creating a therapeutic alliance in accordance with each child’s specific needs. In one case, she helped a boy to write down his stories. In another, she knitted clothes for a girl’s doll. Anna Freud created the field of child psychoanalysis, and her work contributed greatly to our understanding of child psychology. She also developed different techniques to treat children. Freud noted that children’s symptoms differed from those of adults and were often related to developmental stages. She also provided clear explanations of the ego's defense mechanisms in her book The Ego and the Mechanisms of Defense 5. BURRHUS FREDERIC SKINNER - BEHAVIORAL ANALYSIS ● ● ●

BIRTHDATE: March 20, 1904 DIED: August 18, 1990 (died of leukemia) OVERVIEW OF HIS THEORY AND CONTRIBUTIONS

Skinner’s theory of personality is based largely on his behavioral analysis of rats and pigeons. Skinner denied the existence of an entity called personality and did not seek causes of behavior within the organism. Mental and physiological processes are not overtly observable, so they have no relevance for science. The causes of behavior are external to the organism. Behavior can be controlled by its consequences, by the reinforcer that follows the behavior. Respondent behavior involves a response elicited by specific environmental stimuli. Conditioning (respondent

behavior that is learned) involves substituting one stimulus for another. Pavlov demonstrated the importance of reinforcement. Conditioning will not occur without reinforcement. Operant behavior is emitted and is determined and modified by the reinforcer that follows it. Operant behavior cannot be traced to a specific stimulus; it operates on the environment and changes it. Personality is simply a pattern of operant behaviors. 1. A positive reinforcer is any event that, when added to a situation, increases the probability that a given behavior will occur. 2. A negative reinforcer is any aversive stimulus that, when removed from the environment, increases the probability of a given behavior. Skinner also identified two types of punishment: The first is the presentation of an aversive stimulus, and the second involves the removal of a positive stimulus. Reinforcement schedules include fixed interval, fixed ratio, variable interval, and variable ratio. Shaping (successive approximation) involves reinforcing the organism only as its behavior comes to approximate the behavior desired. Superstitious behavior results when reinforcement is presented on a fixed- or variable-interval schedule. Whatever behavior is occurring at the moment of reinforcement will come to be displayed more frequently. Self-control of behavior refers to altering or avoiding certain external stimuli and reinforcers. Other self-control techniques are: 1. Satiation 2. Aversive stimulation 3. Self-reinforcement for displaying desirable behaviors Behavior modification applies operant-conditioning techniques to real-world problems. Desirable behaviors are positively reinforced; undesirable behaviors are ignored. To change unhealthy behaviors, behavior therapists use a variety of behavior modification techniques, all of which are based on the principles of operant conditioning. Skinner’s image of human nature emphasizes determinism, uniqueness, the importance of the environment, and the design of a society that maximizes the opportunity for survival. Although people are controlled by the environment, they can exert control by designing that environment properly. Skinner assessed behavior (not personality) using functional analysis to determine the frequency of the behavior, the situation in which the behavior occurred, and the reinforcers associated with the behavior. Three ways to assess behavior are direct observation, self-report, and physiological measures. 6. CARL JUNG - ANALYTICAL PSYCHOLOGY ● ● ●

BIRTHDATE: July 26, 1875 DIED: June 6, 1961 OVERVIEW OF HIS THEORY AND CONTRIBUTIONS

Parts of Jung’s personality theory were influenced by his childhood experiences and his dreams and fantasies. Jung broadened Freud’s definition of libido, redefining it as a more generalized dynamic force. Jung argued that personality is shaped by the future as well as the past, and he placed greater emphasis on the unconscious.

Jung used the term libido in two ways: 1. a diffuse, generalized life energy 2. a narrower energy that fuels the psyche The amount of energy invested in an idea or feeling is called a value. Psychic energy operates in accordance with the principles of opposites, equivalence, and entropy. 1. The principle of opposites states that every aspect of the psyche has its opposite and that this opposition generates psychic energy. 2. The principle of equivalence states that energy is never lost to the personality but is shifted from one part to another. 3. The principle of entropy states that there is a tendency toward equilibrium in the personality. The ego is the center of consciousness and is concerned with perceiving, thinking, feeling, and remembering. Part of our conscious perception is determined by the attitudes of introversion and extraversion, in which libido is channeled internally or externally. The psychological functions include thinking, feeling, sensing, and intuiting. Thinking and feeling are rational functions; sensing and intuiting are non-rational. Only one attitude and function can be dominant. The eight psychological types are formed by combinations of the attitudes and functions. The personal unconscious is a reservoir of material that was once conscious but has been forgotten or suppressed. Complexes, which may be conscious or unconscious, are patterns of emotions, memories, perceptions, and wishes centering on common themes. The collective unconscious is a storehouse of the experiences of humankind transmitted to each individual. Archetypes are recurring themes that express these experiences. The most powerful archetypes are the persona, anima, animus, shadow, and self. Psychic birth occurs at puberty, when the psyche assumes a definite content. Preparatory activities mark the time from adolescence through young adulthood. In the period of middle age, when success has been achieved, the personality undergoes changes. Psychic energy must be rechanneled into the inner world of the unconscious, and the attitude must shift from extraversion to introversion. Individuation (the realization of one’s capabilities) can occur ...