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1 LANGUAGES IN CONTACT ACROSS GENERATIONS: A STUDY ON PHILIPPINE PLAYS IN ENGLISH FROM THE 1950s TO THE 1970s 1. INTRODUCTION “Can anything be more illogical or unreal than a play depicting humble, rural folk speaking English in the barrios?” Rosalinda Orosa, a Filipino journalist and advocate for c...

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1 LANGUAGES IN CONTACT ACROSS GENERATIONS: A STUDY ON PHILIPPINE PLAYS IN ENGLISH FROM THE 1950s TO THE 1970s 1. INTRODUCTION “Can anything be more illogical or unreal than a play depicting humble, rural folk speaking English in the barrios?” Rosalinda Orosa, a Filipino journalist and advocate for culture and arts, mused in her article, The Filipino Play in English (1960). “It is vaguely disturbing to think that fifty years hence, theater enthusiasts may conclude… that Filipino farmers, barbers, laborers, domestics and soldiers of the Revolution spoke grammatical English in the year 1898 or even 1960!” Although the thought of Filipino farmers and laborers speaking in perfect English may have seemed ludicrous at that time, it did not stop writers from composing, and eventually staging, numerous Philippine plays in English. Over the years, audiences have been captivated and entertained by the works of Wilfrido Ma. Guerrero, Severino Montano, Alberto Florentino, and other brilliant playwrights. The works of Jose Garcia Villa, Jorge Bocobo, Vidal Tan, and other playwrights have likewise been hailed by Filipino audiences (Edades, 1956). In addition, competitions like the Carlos Palanca Memorial Awards for Literature and the Arena Theater Playwriting Contest have encouraged budding writers to compose essays, novels, plays, and poems, in both English and Filipino. Decades after Orosa’s aforementioned remark, Philippine literature in English was hailed as “the most creative, the most substantial and the most promising” among the literary forms in the country by Dimalanta & Mata (1993, p. ix). In their book, Philippine Contemporary Literature in English: Tradition and Change, the authors pointed out that the genre has caught

2 the attention of audiences and readers worldwide, and has “reaped laurels for its writers” (p. ix). Filipino poetry in English, for example, was made by popular by writers such as Fernando Maramag, Jose Garcia Villa, Edith Tiempo, Cirilo Bautista, and other poets (Abad, 2003). Likewise, Filipino short stories in English became known through the works of Paz Marquez Benitez, Estrella Alfon, Jose Villa Panganiban, Gregorio Brillantes, Gilda Cordero-Fernando, Kerima Polotan, and other writers (Dalisay, 2003).

1.1 Background of the Study The use of English in the Philippines has come a long way. According to Gonzales and Alberca (1978), English first arrived in the islands through the American sailors of Admiral John Dewey in 1898, during the Spanish-American war. For three years, troops of American soldiers, more than 70,000 in all, also came and spread the language. In July 1901, a group of 48 American teachers aboard the Sheridan arrived (Batnag, 2012). Soon after this, another batch of teachers arrived via the army transport Buford (Roma-Sianturi, 2009). On August 23, 1901, a larger group of 509 teachers (368 men and 141 women) aboard the USS Thomas arrived; hence, the educators, along with the earlier batches, were dubbed as “Thomasites” (Batnag, 2012). The American teachers were assigned to public schools established by the civilian government. Eventually, English became the medium of instruction, business, and administration, replacing Spanish, the language of the former colonizers. The Filipinos learned the new tongue quickly. In spite of this, it soon became clear that they did not speak English in exactly the same way as their American teachers did. The teachers noticed that even their brightest students, including the pensionados who were sent to study in the US, spoke their new language with an accent (Gonzales & Alberca, 1978). Moreover,

3 although the teachers constantly drilled their students on correct grammar and usage, certain “errors” [emphasis added] kept creeping in. For a long time, the common perception was that English in the Philippines was deteriorating. Eventually, however, this negative view would change, as it was observed that a unique variety of English was emerging. In 1978, Gonzales and Alberca noted that Filipino students and teachers spoke in an English that was “distinctively non-American” (p. 2). They explained that because the native speakers of English gradually left the country, they no longer served as teachers and models of the language. Thus, the authors surmised: “it was inevitable that the oral mastery of English would change in character, not necessarily deteriorate, as the impression is given; it evolved into a new variety of English as it is spoken and used in the Philippines” (p. 3). In 1969, Llamzon published a monograph entitled, Standard Filipino English, where he attempted to describe the grammatical and phonological features of English as spoken by Filipinos. In later studies, such as Gonzales & Alberca’s work on the language of the mass media (1978) as well as Bautista’s analysis of yaya English (1982) and other sub-varieties (1996), the language was termed “Philippine English.” Through these studies, it became clear that what was once considered as “errors” began to be seen as “features.” Particularly, Gonzales asked in a 1983 paper: “When does an error become a feature of Philippine English?” He then presented the lexical, syntactic, and phonological deviations of Philippine English from the norm, and identified the items that would most likely become accepted as features. In a later publication (1985), he gave a more definite answer by saying: “If enough educated elites in the society ‘commit’ these errors, then these errors in effect have been accepted by the society as the standard” (p. 199). Given that Gonzales’ research and other related studies indicated the

4 widespread use of Philippine English, even among the educated, it comes to show that it is a variety of English of its own kind. Indeed, Philippine English is a variety that is distinct from that used by Americans, British, Australians, and other “native” speakers of the language; nonetheless, it is just as authentic as other “Englishes.” The study of Philippine English falls under the World Englishes paradigm, which states that “the English language now belongs to all those who use it” (Brown, 1995, p. 235). The paradigm looks at Philippine English as one of the many Englishes being used in the world today, alongside Indian English, Singaporean English, and many others. Meanwhile, in a paper entitled, Philippine English: A Case of Language Drift, Malicsi (2010) explained: It [Philippine English] has particular linguistic features that arose out of a gradual drift in language learning away from the native language speaker, such that generations of Filipino learners of English have picked up the forms and rules of English from Filipino second-language learners trained by other Filipino second-language learners. (p. 29). Based on this remark, it can be deduced that although Philippine English has “drifted away” from its American roots, it has developed into a variety of its own, a variety that is used all over the country today. Furthermore, Philippine English can also be considered as an outcome of “language contact” between English and Tagalog, with the latter having been influenced by Spanish in earlier times. As a result, the variety of English used in the country is a dynamic fusion of languages that is continuously being transformed. Consequently, the literature written in

5 “indigenized” varieties of English, including Philippine English, have been termed as “contact literatures” by Kachru (1986) in his book, The Alchemy of English: The Spread, Functions, and Models of Non-Native Englishes. In this regard, it would be interesting and worthwhile to study Philippine literature as a form of contact literature. In particular, Philippine plays in English could serve as a rich source of material for studying about languages in contact. Since plays usually come in the form of dialogues, and portray the values and practices of a specific group of people at a particular point in time -- much can be gained from analyzing them in terms of structure and context. For instance, how was English used in plays written over 50 years ago? How does it compare to later plays in the aspect of language? With these questions in mind, this study examined selected Philippine plays in English as forms of contact literature, particularly focusing on occurrences of code switching in English, Tagalog, Spanish, and other languages. In the process, this study was guided by Kachru’s (1986) framework on contact literature, and his notion that code switching is not merely the combination of two languages; rather, it is also “a creation of cultural, aesthetic, societal, and literary norms .... Such creativity has a distinct context of situation” (p. 164). Likewise, Bautista’s works on the lexicon of Philippine English were also used in describing and analyzing the lexical items in the plays covered by this study. 1.2 Statement of the Problem Primarily, this study sought to answer the question, “Based on the lexicon of Philippine plays in English from the 1950s to the 1970s, what can be inferred about the linguistic and sociocultural landscape of the country during those times?”

6 This study also sought answers to the following related questions: (1) What are the “non-English” lexical items that occur in Philippine plays in English from the 1950s to the 1970s? (2) What do these lexical items reveal about the linguistic landscape of the country during the periods covered by the study? (3) What do these lexical items reveal about the sociocultural landscape of the country during the periods covered by the study? (4) Based on the findings of the study, what linguistic changes/processes can be said to have transpired between the 1950s and the 1970s? (5) What do these linguistic changes/processes imply about the dynamics of English in the Philippine setting during the periods covered by the study? 1.3 Significance of the Study Though there have been plenty of studies about Philippine plays, many of these are focused on character, plot, theme, theatricality, and other aspects of a play. In contrast, only a few studies have approached the genre from a linguistic perspective. In this regard, this research aims to contribute to the study of Philippine plays using a linguistic approach, specifically by examining occurrences of code switching in plays by three major playwrights, Wilfrido Ma. Guerrero, Severino Montano, and Alberto Florentino. In the process, this study also attempts to describe and analyze these occurrences in light of the social, cultural, and historical realities that may have influenced them. Moreover, by looking at plays

7 written by the authors from the 1950s to the 1970s, it sought to gain a deeper understanding of how the language has changed within and possibly, across generations. Ultimately, this research hopes to encourage further studies about the language of Philippine literature in English.

1.4 Objectives This study aims to analyze the lexicon of Philippine plays in English from the 1950s to the 1970s, and what they reveal about the linguistic and sociocultural landscape of the country during those times. Specifically, it attempts to: a. identify the “non-English” lexical items that occur in Philippine plays in English from the 1950s to the 1970s; b. explain what these lexical items reveal about the linguistic landscape of the country during the periods covered by the study; c. explain what these lexical items reveal about the sociocultural landscape of the country during the periods covered by the study; d. determine the linguistic changes/processes that transpired between the 1950s and the 1970s; and e. determine what these linguistic changes/processes imply about the dynamics of English in the Philippine setting during the periods covered by the study.

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1.5 Scope and Delimitation This study looks at Philippine plays in English written by three renowned Filipino playwrights: Wilfrido Ma. Guerrero, Severino Montano, and Alberto Florentino. Aside from the fact that they are distinguished playwrights, all of them have written plays across different time periods, particularly from the 1950s to the 1970s. This study focuses on their plays that were created during these periods, as these are the years when their works intersect, thus making it possible to make comparisons among authors, as well as within and across these generations. The plays are analyzed in their print form and not as orally delivered; thus, phonological features are not part of the study. Instead, the research focuses on the lexical items contained in the scripts. Specifically, the study concentrates on the dialogues and does not include stage directions and other scripts notes. This is because dialogues are considered as “simulations” of real conversation and they show how lexical items are used in context. However, in making inferences about the sociocultural landscape of the country as depicted by the plays, the playwrights’ descriptions of the setting (place and time) and other notes are considered.

1.6 Definition of Terms Bilingual – “a person who can speak two languages” (Crystal, 2008, p. 53) Bilingualism - “the practice of alternatively using two languages” (Weinreich, 1953, p. 5) Borrowing - a term used to refer to “a linguistic form taken over by one language or dialect from another; such borrowings are usually known as loan words” (Crystal, 2008, p. 58) - “the process of taking lexical items from other languages” (Gramley, 2001, p. 299)

9 Code Mixing – a linguistic behavior that involves “the transfer of linguistic elements from one language to another; a sentence begins in one language, then makes use of words or grammatical features belonging to another” (Crystal, 2008, p. 83) Code Switching - “the use by a speaker of more than one language, dialect, or variety during a conversation; which form is used will depend on such factors as the nature of the audience, the subject matter, and the situation in which the conversation takes place” (Crystal, 2001, p. 60) - “the alternative use by bilinguals of two or more languages in the same conversation” (Milroy and Muysken, 1995, p. 7) Contact Literature - “a blend of two or more linguistic textures and literary traditions;” in relation to English literature: “literatures in English written by the users of English as a second language to delineate contexts which generally form part of what may be labelled the traditions of English literature” (Kachru, 1986, p. 161) Creole – a term used to refer to “a pidgin language which has become the mother-tongue of a speech community” (Crystal, 2008, p. 122) Deterioration -- “a term used in the classification of types of semantic change, referring to the development of a sense of disapproval in a lexical item; also called pejoration” (Crystal, 2008, p. 140) Eponym - “a word taken from a proper name, such as Hertz for ‘unit of frequency’” (Fromkin, Rodman, & Hyams, 2013, p. 564)

10 - “the name of a person after whom something (such as an invention or a place) is named, such as Sandwich [a type of food] and Washington [a place]” (Crystal, 2008, p. 171) Functional Shift - a process wherein a word is used in a different word class without the addition of an affix; the term smell, for example, may be used as a noun or verb without the addition of an affix (Crystal, 2008, p. 114) Generation – “persons existing at the same time or period; the period between successive steps in natural descent, usually taken at 30 years in humans” (The New International Webster’s Comprehensive Dictionary of the English Language, 2010, p. 526) Initialisms - “items that reflect the separate pronunciation of the initial letters of the constituent words, e.g. TV and COD” (Crystal, 2008, p. 1) Language Change – “a general term referring to change within a language over a period of time, seen as a universal and unstoppable process” (Crystal, 2008, p. 266) Language Contact - “a term used in sociolinguistics to refer to a situation of geographical continuity or close proximity (and thus of mutual influence) between languages or dialects” (Crystal, 2008, p. 107). Proximity can be facilitated through historical, trade / business, or other forms of ties. Narrowing - “a restriction of meaning in a lexical item. For example, in Old English mete ‘meat’ referred to food in general, whereas today it refers to only one kind of food.” (Crystal, 2008, p. 320)

11 Nativization – a language contact phenomenon that occurs “when a community adopts a new language and modifies the structure of that new language, thus developing a dialect that becomes characteristic of the community ... [for example] in India, Indian English is recognized as a separate dialect of English with its own structural characteristics ” (Finegan, 1999, p. 491) Obsolescence - “the gradual loss of a lexical item because changes in the language or in the external world eliminate the opportunity or motivation for its use. Examples of obsolescent words in English would be terms referring to vehicles from a previous era, such as landau or hansom.” (Crystal, 2008, p. 337) Philippine English - “the English language as used in the Philippines” (McArthur, 1996, p. 684) - a variety of English, along with Indian English, Nigerian English, and Singaporean English (Bautista, 2000) Pidgin – “language with a markedly reduced grammatical structure, lexicon, and stylistic range compared with others, and is the native language of no one; formed by two mutually unintelligible speech communities attempting to communicate, each approximating to the more obvious features of the other’s language” (Crystal, 2008, p. 369) - “from pigeon English, the reduced form of the language used in China for communication with Europeans, from pigeon, itself a pidgin word, representing a Chinese pronounciation of business” (Dictionary.com, 2013) Semantic Extension - “a widening of meaning in a lexical item .... For example, in Latin ‘virtue’ was a male quality, but today it applies to both sexes.” (Crystal, 2008, p. 181)

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World Englishes – a perspective which holds that: “(a) there is a repertoire of models for English; (b) the localized innovations [in English] have pragmatic bases; (c) the English language now belongs to all those who use it” (Brown, 1995, pp. 233-235) - “the term ‘Englishes’ is indicative of distinct identities and literature [and] symbolizes variation in form and function, use in linguistically and culturally distinct contexts, and a range of variety in literary creativity” (Kachru, 1996, p. 135)

13 2. REVIEW OF LITERATURE In light of the objectives of this study, the following subjects are reviewed: language change, World Englishes, Philippine English, contact literatures, Philippine literature in English, and Philippine drama. Accounts of events pertaining to language use and policy during the Spanish and American occupation periods are also perused. 2.1 Historical Background: Cultures & Languages in Contact Contemporary Filipinos have been described by McFerson (2002) as “virtually a race of races” (p. 15). She also comments that even though Filipinos are “essentially Malay in racial composition, they also have Negrito, Indonesian, Indian, Chinese, Japanese, Arab, European and American ‘bloods’” (p. 15). Without doubt, Filipinos today can trace their lineage back to a varied mix of peoples and cultures. Among the many groups who came to the islands, however, there were two colonizers, whose might and reach made a strong impact: the Spanish and the Americans. 2.1.1

The Spanish Influence In The Philippine Islands (1973), Blair and Robertson state that the Spanish first

reached the Philippines on March 16, 1521, when Ferdinand Magellan, a Portuguese serving the Spanish royalty, was tasked to obtain spices from the Moluccas or Spice Islan...