185 final study guide - Summary Industrial/Organizational Psychology PDF

Preview

Summary

Final Study Guide...

Description

INDUSTRIAL/ORGANIZATIONAL PSYCHOLOGY (P185S) REVIEW SHEET FOR FINAL EXAM

CHAPTER 1 ~ INTRODUCTION TO I/O PSYCHOLOGY – 2 LECTURES I. What is Industrial/Organizational Psychology? - The study of human behavior in work settings A. Industrial/Organizational Psychology studies human behavior in work settings. 1. Basic Personnel functions (e.g., the way workers are recruited & selected) - Recruitment, selection, how to decide who to choose for this job 2. Psychological processes underlying work behavior (e.g,, motivation to work) - Motivation, worker stress, improving coworker relations 3. Group processes in the workplace (e.g., how groups of workers coordinate) - How groups coordinate, how to resolve conflicts, how to build a team of workers B. What does an I/O Psychologist really do? 1. Ph.D. vs. Master’s level - Masters - Private sector, government positions - Need at least a master's, pref a phd 2. Director of Human Resources, Personnel Research Psychologist, VP of Employee Development, etc. 3. Brief profiles of actual I/O Psychologists II. The Science and Practice of Industrial/Organizational Psychology A. Objective #1: conduct research in an effort to increase our knowledge and understanding of human work behavior B. Objective #2: apply that knowledge to improve work behavior, the work environment, and the psych. health of workers III. The Roots and Early History of Industrial/Organizational Psychology: The Beginnings (early 1900s), World War I & the 1920s - Frederick W taylor - Another early spark that helped ignite the field of I/O psychology was provided not by a psychologist, but by an engineer named Frederick W. Taylor. Taylor believed that scientific principles could be applied to the study of work behavior to help increase worker efficiency and productivity. He felt that there

was “one best method” for performing a particular job. By breaking the job down scientifically into measurable component movements and recording the time needed to perform each movement, Taylor believed that he could develop the fastest, most efficient way of performing any task. He was quite successful in applying his methods, which became known as time-and-motion studies. These time-and-motion procedures often doubled, tripled, and even quadrupled laborer output! Taylor’s system for applying scientific principles to increase work efficiency and productivity eventually became known as scientific management. In addition to applying time-and-motion procedures, Taylor incorporated into his system of scientific management other considerations, such as selection of workers based on abilities and the use of proper tools - Time-and-Motion Studies procedures in which work tasks are broken down into simple component movements and the movements timed to develop a more efficient method for performing the tasks Scientific Management begun by Frederick Taylor, a method of using scientific principles to improve the efficiency and productivity of jobs - Taylor and his followers, including the husband-and-wife team of Frank and Lillian Gilbreth (Lillian Gilbreth was one of the earliest women I/O psychologists; Figure 1.2), implemented the principles of scientific management and revolutionized several physical labor jobs by making the accepted work procedures more efficient and productive (Gilbreth, 1916). For example, scientific management principles and procedures such as time-and-motion studies greatly improved the efficiency of a wide variety of typical types of jobs, including cabinetmaking, clerical filing, lumber sawing, and the making of reinforced concrete slabs (increased from 80 to 425 slabs per day!) (Lowry, Maynard, & Stegemerten, 1940). Unfortunately, Taylor’s philosophy was quite narrow and limited. In his day, many jobs involved manual labor and were thus easily broken down and made more efficient through the application of principles of scientific management. Today, jobs are much more complex and often require sophisticated problem-solving skills or the use of creative thinking. Fewer and fewer people engage in physical labor. Many of these “higher-level” tasks are not amenable to time-and-motion studies. In other words, there is probably not one best method for creating computer software, developing an advertising campaign, or managing people. IV. The Great Depression Years and World War II: Poor 1930s economy; Human Relations movement; World War II V. The Post-War Years and the Modern Era: Specialty areas began to emerge; the 1960s through the 1990s VI. Industrial Organizational Psychology Today and in the Future: Changing nature of work, expanding focus on human resources, increasing diversity in the workforce, increasing globalization of business

VII. Exploring Training and Careers in I/O Psychology A. Join the UCI Students for Industrial Organizational Psychology club: http://www.socsci.uci.edu/ssarc/siop/index.html B. Visit the websites of relevant professional organizations: 1. The Society for Industrial Organizational Psychology has detailed info about graduate programs on their website 2. The APA website has an online “Guide to Getting into Graduate School” 3. The APS has relevant information about scientific careers in psychology: C. Go to the Career Center to find out what information they have in I/O Psychology E. Read beyond the textbook D. Arrange a short “informational interview” with a practicing I/O psychologist in your area 1. Get names from the career center 2. Information interview handout CHAPTER 2 ~ RESEARCH METHODS IN INDUSTRIAL/ORGANIZATIONAL PSYCHOLOGY I. Social Scientific Research Methods: Goals of social scientific research methods; steps in the research process II. Major Research Designs: Experimental, quasi-experiments, correlational, complex correlational, meta-analysis, case study III. How to Use Research Methods in your Own Life: Approach the problems as a scientist would IV. Measurement of Variables: Observational techniques, self-report techniques V. Key Issues in Measuring Variables: Reliability & Validity VI. Measuring work outcomes: Work productivity & quality; employee absenteeism, turnover, employee satisfaction VII. Interpreting and Using Research Results ~ External Validity: Do results in one setting apply to another setting? VIII. The Hawthorne Effect: A Case Study in Flawed Research Methods B. Workers were being affected by the simple fact that they knew they were being observed. C. Their positive expectations & knowledge of the observations, determined their consistent increases in productivity D. In another study, productivity fell following introduction of changes in the work environment IX. Ethical Issues in Research and Practice in I/O Psychology A. The following are generally considered unethical in I/O Research: 1. Involving individuals in a research project without their knowledge or consent 2. Coercing individuals into being study participants 3. Deceiving individuals as to the true nature of the research in which they are

participating - Subjecting individuals to physical or psychological harm during their involvement in a study - Failing to maintain the confidentiality of the study participants - Given these concerns, it is important for researchers should take precautions - Researchers should follow guidelines set forth by the Academy of Management and the APA 2. Human subject review committees CHAPTER 3: JOB ANALYSIS I. Job Analysis - Systematic study of the characteristics of a job and the skills and tasks needed to perform that job A. Leads directly to: 1. Job description 2. Job specification ~ provides information about the human characteristics required to perform the job 3. Job evaluation - relative worth of value of job - What should we pay this person - More experience, more education: the higher the pay 4. Performance criteria ~ the means for appraising worker success in performing a job B. Certain personnel actions, such as decisions to hire or promote, must be make on the basis of a thorough job analysis - Use job analysis to decide if they’re doing a good job II. Job Analysis Methods A. Observations - Watch the incumbent at work B. Participation - Perform the job or job operations C. Existing data 1. Most large, established organizations usually have some information or records 2. Existing data should always be checked to make sure it conforms to the job as it is currently being performed - conforms to current job? Includes new technology? - Ex. analysis of prof 20 years ago didn’t use iclickers/websites, so the data would have to be updated D. Interviews can be open-ended or they can involve structured or standardized questions E. Surveys

-

Paper and pencil questionnaires F. Job Diaries: Another method of job analysis is to have job incumbents record their daily activities in a diary III. A Detailed Job Analysis of Real Estate Agents - An industrial/organizational psychologist undertook a detailed job analysis of real estate salespersons and brokers - The results of this job analysis indicated the tasks that real estate agents typically engage in - The various kinds of knowledge that was required for real estate agents were also identified - The I/O psychologist recommended that the state change the licensing examination test items - State of CA completed a job analysis of real estate agents - Producest list of tasks that real estate agents perform - Produced list of knowledge that RE agents need to have and perform that knowledge when interacting with clients - Must also take an exam - But the questions didn’t reflect actual information that they needed to know, so CA went back and redid the test to have practical information - Using existing data and updating it IV. Job Analysis Techniques A. Job Element Method ~ analyzes jobs in terms of the KSAOs required to perform the jobs - Analysis jobs in terms of knowledge skills abilities and other characteristics (KSAOs) required to perform the job - Relies of subject matter experts (SMEs) - Experts then rank/rate elements in terms of importance of each of the KSAOs - Relies on “experts” (subject matter experts, or SMEs) who are informed about the job - The experts rate or rank the different elements in terms of their importance for performing the job B. Functional Job Analysis - A structured technique that examines the sequence of tasks in a job and the process by which they are completed (O*NET) - Start with ONET then fup with interviews or observations about jobs - O*NET (the Occupational Information Network; www.onetcenter.org) - Begin with a general description provided by ONET, then revise based on specific job Position Analysis Questionnaire (PAQ) - A structured questionnaire 187 job questions about job elements and you rate each

element about the job - The 187 questions are arranged into 6 categories - Often done by a subject matter expert - Information input: when and how worker obtains info - Rate this item in terms of extent to which it is used by the worker as a source of information: pictures drawings, blueprints, maps, films, x-rays etc etc 1. Information input – where and how the worker obtains information needed to perform the job ● Where and how the worker obtains the information needed to perform the job. For example, a newspaper reporter may be required to use published, written materials as well as interviews with informants to write a news story. A clothing inspector’s information input may involve fine visual discriminations of garment seams. 2. Mental processes – the kinds of thinking, reasoning, and decision making required to perform the job ● For example, an air traffic controller must make many decisions about when it is safe for jets to land and take off. 3. Work output – the tasks the worker must perform & tools or machines needed ● For example, a word processor must enter text using keyboard devices. 4. Relationships with other persons – the kinds of relationships and contacts with others required to do the job ● 5. Job context – the physical and/or social contexts in which work is performed ● 6. Other job characteristics – other relevant activities, conditions, or characteristics necessary to do the job D. Critical Incidents Technique (CIT) - Behaviors that lead to success or failure - What KSAOS workers need to perform their job successfully - Records the specific worker behavior that have led to particularly successful or unsuccessful job performance - Helps determine the particular knowledge, skills and abilities that a worker needs to perform a job successfully V. Job Analysis and the ADA - In 1990, the Americans with Disabilities Act (ADA) was passed - Compliance with the ADA requires employers to understand the “essential elements,” or content, of a job - Job analysis has become more complex, more challenging, and more critical VI. Job evaluation and comparable worth A. Job evaluation – the process of assessing the relative value of jobs to determine appropriate compensation B. A number of other variables (besides the job evaluation) can influence compensation

- Supply of potential workers - Perceived value of the job to the company - job’s history C. Detailed job evaluations usually examine jobs on a number of dimensions called compensable factors - Detailed job evaluations usually examine jobs on a number of dimensions called compensable factors - job elements that are used to determine appropriate compensation for a job 1. Physical demands of a job - Amount of training or experience required - The working conditions associated with the job - The amount of responsibility the job carries - each job may be given a score or a weight on each factor E. Wage discrepancies for men & women - In 2010, women were paid about 77% of the wages paid men for comparable work - Two issues bear directly on the “gender gap” in wages - Other issue is that men referred to as doctors and women as nurses - Docs make 2.77x more than nurses when they should be making 1.08 F. Glass Ceiling or Labyrinth: Which Better Describes Gender Inequities? - “Glass ceiling”: the limitations placed on women (and minorities) that prevent them from advancing to the top - Only 6% of the highest paid executives of Fortune 500 companies (e.g., chairman, president, CFO) are women - Women (and minorities!) cant move up even though men are - Harder for women to get past a certain level - Men and women have similar management styles CHAPTER 4 – EMPLOYEE RECRUITMENT, SELECTION, AND PLACEMENT I. Human Resource Planning A. Talent inventory: An assessment of the current KSAOs of current employees and how they are used B. Workforce forecast: A plan for future HR requirements (ie., the number of positions forecasted) C. Action plans: A plan to guide the recruitment, selection, training, and compensation of future hires D. Control and evaluation: Having a system of feedback to assess how well the HR system is working II. Steps in the employee selection process A. Employee recruitment – the process by which organizations attract potential workers to apply

for jobs B. Employee screening – we’ll talk about this in detail when we get to Chapter 5 C. Employee selection 1. A model for employee selection 2. Making employee selection decisions – the actual process of choosing people for employment D. Employee placement - deciding to which job hired workers should be assigned III. Equal Employment Opportunity in Employee Selection and Placement A. Employers can take steps to attract applicants from underrepresented groups B. Affirmative action policies – hire or promote a member of a protected group over majority group CHAPTER 5: METHODS FOR SCREENING, ASSESSING, AND SELECTING EMPLOYEES I. Evaluation of written materials - Includes applications, resumes & work samples II. References and letters of recommendation A. Applicants can usually choose their own sources for references and recommendations B. Many companies are refusing to provide reference for former employees except job title and dates of employment III. Employment Testing A. Types of Employee Screening Tests 1. Cognitive ability tests 2. Job skills and knowledge tests – assess specific job skills or domains of job knowledge 3. Personality tests – designed to measures certain psychological characteristics B. Considerations in the Development and Use of Personnel Screening and Testing Methods 1. Reliability refers to the stability of a measure over time or the consistency of the measure 2. Validity refers to the accuracy of inferences or projections that we draw from measurements IV. Assessment centers - Lindsay applies for a job and spends a full day in discussions with other applicants and doing samples of work tasks, all while the tasks are being observed and rated - Offers a detailed, structured evaluation of applicants on a wide range of job-related KSAO’s - Applicants take part in situational exercises 1. In-basket test 2. Leaderless group discussion - Applicants are put together in a small group to discuss some work-related topic V. Hiring interviews - Types of interviews (in addition to traditional interview format, where interviewer asks

whatever) - Situational interview – asks interviewees how they would deal with specific, job-related, hypothetical situations - Behavior description interview - Should have three major objectives B. How to conduct more effective hiring interviews 1. Use structured interviews 2. Make sure that interview questions are job related 3. Provide for some rating or scoring of applicant responses CHAPTER 6 – EVALUATING EMPLOYEE PERFORMANCE

I. Job performance and performance appraisals A. By assessing performance, organizations can determine if the predictors of job performance do predict success on the job - Refine predictors to make sure that the test works, helps employee get feedback - Measure job performance against predetermined standards B. Performance appraisals – measures performance in comparison to predetermined standards II. The Measurement of Job Performance: Objective vs. subjective performance criteria; sources of performance ratings - Objective - Quantifiable performance, black and white, numbers etc - Subjective - Judgements made by a knowledgeable person - Ex. supervisors III. The Boss is Watching: Electronic Monitoring of Employee Performance - Workers can have their performance monitored electronically - Workers have raised certain objections: Focuses too much on quantifiable behaviors, infringes on privacy, unfair - Giving employees feedback and allowing workers a “voice” in the performance monitoring program is recommended - Call centers, online, company computer networks - More objective assessments - but there are concerns - Focus only on things that can be quantified, ignored quality - Violates employees’ right to privacy - So employees view it as a fair supervisory practice - Give employees feedback and allow them a voice III. Methods of rating employee performance: Comparative methods; individual methods - Comparative methods - Comparing one workers performance with the performance with others

-

Rankings - Best to worst Paired comparisons - compare workers w every other worker Forced distribution - Assign workers to established categories, poor to great - Limit as to how many employees can go into each category!! So you get a normal distribution of rankings - Individual method - Graphic rating scales, basic predetermined scales - Don’t compare to other people, just against themselves - Quality of work, accountability, ability to get along with others - 1 - 10 on each, etc V. Problems and pitfalls in performance appraisals: Leniency, severity, central tendency, halo, recency, causal attribution, personal biases, cross-cultural and international issues ILeniency/severity errors - Too easy or too hard on person being judges - Leniency - judges everyone too positively - Severity error - judge everyone too harshly - Central tendency - judge everyone averagely - Halo effect - Overall positive appraisals of workers on the basis of one known positive characteristic or action - Ex. outstanding on one task, assumes all work is outstanding - Reverse halo effect - Overall negative appraisal of worker, on basis of one known negative characteristic/action, or don’t like personality - Colors impression of them for the rest of the evaluatio...