6671 exam 1 study guide PDF

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Exam study guide for exam 1 master of science in nursing...

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https://webpath.med.utah.edu/CINJHTML/CINJIDX.html Image 6 What caused the cerebral atrophy shown on this slide? alzheimers Image 8 What caused left ventricular hypertrophy in this patient? Increased workload Image 9 What caused the endometrial hyperplasia shown? Normal menstrual cycle Image 12 What caused the metaplasia shown on this slide? smoking -- metaplasia is abnormal Image 14 The abnormal growth pattern of the cervical dysplasia is described as dysplastic epithelium. Normal is squamous epithelium. Image 15 What is the cause of apoptosis in this liver? Cell necrosis, infection from viral hepatitis. Image 28 The liquefactive necrosis shown on this slide is caused by a cerebral infarction. Image 36 What disease did the patient have who lost this leg to gangrene? DM with PVD Image 51 Increased amounts of bilirubin cause jaundice. CHAPTER 1 AND 2 1. List 8 functions of the eukaryotic cells 2. Describe the functions of the following cellular organelles: nucleus, ribosomes, smooth and rough endoplasmic reticulum, golgi complex, lysosomes, peroxisomes, mitochondria, cytop and cytoskeleton.

3. Explain the functions of the cell membrane in relation to its structure. 4. Describe the role of cellular receptors in cell function. 5. Identify ways in which cells communicate. 6. Identify the process by which cells generate energy for cellular functions. 7. Compare and contrast the processes by which water and solutes move into and out of the c 8. Compare and contrast the processes by which large molecules move into and out of the ce 9. Explain how electrical impulses are transmitted across the cell membrane. 10 Identify the stages of the cell cycle and actions that occur in each stage. . 11 Describe factors that govern cell growth. Identify cells classified as labile, stable, and . permanent in relation to reproduction. 12 Differentiate the four types of tissues by description, location, and function. . 13 Contrast the following mechanisms of cellular adaptation: atrophy, hypertrophy, hyperplas . 14 List (in order) and describe the progressive types of cell injury and responses. . 15 Differentiate pathophysiologically between cellular injury caused by hypoxia, reactive oxyge . and free radicals, and chemical injury. 16 List and describe manifestations of cellular injury. . 17 Compare types of necrosis resulting from cell death. . 18 Contrast apoptosis and necrosis. . 19 List normal effects of aging on the cell. . 20 Identify factors affecting life expectancy in males and females in the United States. . MODULE 2 CHAPTER 21 AND 22 1. identify and explain the three basic secretion patterns of hormones 2. explain regulation of hormone secretion by negative feedback, endocrine regulation (one hormone controlling another), and neural control

3. explain the concepts of target cells, hormone receptors, up regulation, down regulation, direct effects, permissive effects, pharmacologic effects 4. list the structural categories of hormones, give an example of each and specify whether the hormone is water soluble or lipid soluble 5. differentiate between the 3 types of hormone receptors: surface membrane, cytoplasmic, and intranuclear and explain the role of first and second messengers. 6. list at least 9 causes of alterations in hormonal regulation 7. develop a chart listing the following endocrine glands: pituitary (anterior and posterior), thyroid, parathyroid, adrenal, and pancreas; hormones produced by each; and functions of the hormones 8. explain why alterations in hypothalamic functioning (e.g., tumor, head trauma) would affect the endocrine glands 9. develop a chart for the anterior pituitary gland listing the disorders, causes and clinical manifestations caused by hypersecretion and hyposecretion of growth hormone, prolactin, LH, FSH, TSH. Identify effects of tumors (found in other parts of the body) that would secrete ACTH, LH, FSH, TSH. 10. explain pathophysiology of Sheehan's syndrome and empty sella syndrome. develop a chart for the posterior pituitary gland listing the disorders, causes and clinical manifestations caused by hypersecretion and hyposecretion of ADH 11. develop a chart for the thyroid gland listing disorders caused by hyperfunction or hypofunction, causes, and clinical manifestations of each disorder 12. develop a chart for the parathyroid gland listing disorders caused by hyperfunction or hypofunction, causes, and clinical manifestations of each disorder 13. develop a chart for the adrenal gland listing disorders caused by hyperfunction or hypofunction, causes, and clinical manifestations of each disorder 14. list effects of aging on the thyroid, parathyroid, adrenal, and pituitary glands. 15. list the serum blood glucose criteria used to diagnose diabetes mellitus. 16. differentiate the previously used terminology, etiology, pathophysiology and characteristics of Type 1 and Type 2 Diabetes. 17. briefly discuss gestational diabetes: when it occurs, outcomes after pregnancy, risk for diabetes mellitus later. 18. explain the use of glycosylated hemoglobin in monitoring effectiveness of treatment for diabetes mellitus. 19. discuss treatment of diabetes mellitus: nutrition, medications (oral hypoglycemics and insulin), exercise, and transplantation. 20. discuss causes, pathophysiology, clinical manifestations, and treatment of acute complications of diabetes mellitus: hypoglycemia, diabetic ketoacidosis (DKA), hyperosmolar hyperglycemic nonketotic syndrome, Somogyi effect, and dawn phenomenon.

21. explain the pathophysiological changes and clinical manifestations of chronic complications of diabetes mellitus: diabetic neuropathies, microvascular disease, retinopathy, diabetic nephropathy, macrovascular disease, coronary artery disease, stroke, peripheral vascular disease, and infection

Average Blood Sugar (mg/dl)

Level of Control

Hemoglobin A1c (%)

380

14%

340

13%

310

12%

280

POOR

11%

240

10%

210

9%

180

8%

140

GOOD

110

7% 6%

EXCELENT 80

5%

Diabetic Retinopathy - In later stages of the disease, blood vessels in the retina start to bleed into the vitreous (gel-like fluid in the center of the eye). If this happens, you may see dark, floating spots or streaks that look like cobwebs. Sometimes, the spots clear up on their own — but it’s important to get treatment right away. Without treatment, the bleeding can happen again, get worse, or cause scarring.

MODULE 3

1.

Describe the structure of DNA and explain DNA replication and the role of RNA in transcription and translation.

2.

Differentiate between somatic cells and gamete (or germ) cells.

3.

Define genome, phenotype, genotype, locus, allele, homozygous, heterozygous, penetrance, pedigree, dominant trait, a

4.

List the phases of the cell cycle and tell what happens in each phase.

5.

Identify types of chromosome aberrations and give an example of each type of disorder

6.

Utilize pedigree charts to discuss autosomal dominant and autosomal recessive disorde

7.

Explain how a consanguineous relationship increases the risk of genetic disorders.

8.

Discuss other factors that increase the risk of occurrence of genetic disorders that lead to spontaneous abortions, birth defects, and genetic disease

9.

Utilize pedigree charts to discuss X-linked dominant and X-linked recessive disorders and give examples of specific disor

10.

Discuss advantages of genetic mapping, genetic engineering, and cloning.

11.

Discuss issues raised by genetic mapping, genetic engineering, and cloning. http://stemcells.nih.gov/

http://learn.genetics.utah.edu/content/basics/oldtour/ 1.

Every child receives 23 of its chromosomes from the mother and 23 from the father. 2. A trait is a notable feature or quality in a person. 3. DNA encodes a detailed set of plans for building different parts of the cell. 4. Gene mutation is the result of an abnormal gene or mutation in a gene that causes a change in the hemoglobin protein. 5. CELLS make all living things function. 6. Each cell in our body contains a lot of ____. 7. DNA is packaged into compact units called chromosome 8. For humans, each cell has 46 chromosomes. 9. 2 sex chromosomes determine whether you are male or female. 10. A female is designated with XX chromosomes and a male is designated with XY https://www.merckmanuals.com/home/fundamentals/genetics/inheritance-of-single-gene-disorders

GENETIC TESTING AND PREGNANCY Inherited genetic diseases cannot be cured, but they can be prevented. Carrier screening is a simple blood or saliva test that will reveal whether you or your partner carry gene abnormalities that could cause disease in your offspring. Most genetic disorders affecting children are recessive, meaning they develop only when two copies of a defective gene are inherited. Parents who have a single copy of a recessive mutation are carriers and are in most cases unaffected by the disease. However, parents who are both carriers for the same condition can pass that condition on to their child if the child inherits an abnormal gene from each of them. Genetic diseases are often fatal or severely debilitating. Because carriers usually have no symptoms, screening is the only way to know your risk of having an affected child.

What are genes? A human embryo contains 46 chromosomes organized into 23 pairs: 22 pairs of non-sex chromosomes, called autosomes, and one pair of sex chromosomes (XX in a female and XY in a male). One chromosome in each pair is inherited from the mother and one from the father. Located along these chromosomes are approximagely 25,000 genes that carry instructions for making proteins. Through the proteins they encode, your genes determine how your body develops and functions.

What is a gene mutation? A gene mutation is a permanent alteration in a gene. Disease results from the altered gene's inability to produce a protein the body needs for normal functioning. The diseases produced by gene mutations can be mild, severely debilitating, or fatal.

How are genetic diseases inherited? Most genetic diseases affecting children are recessive, meaning the normally functioning gene in a pair will override the abnormal one, if a normal gene is present.

What does it mean to be a carrier? A carrier is a healthy person who has one altered copy of a gene and one normally functioning copy. Because carriers do not become ill, many families pass recessive gene mutations down from generation to generation without ever knowing it. Recessive gene mutations are known as "autosomal recessive" if they occur on one of the 22 pairs of non-sex chromosomes and "Xlinked" if they occur on an X chromosome.

Autosomal recessive inheritance Autosomal recessive diseases occur when both parents are carriers of the same disease and their child inherits an altered gene from each of them. Children of carrier parents have:   

A 25% chance of inheriting two altered genes and developing the disease. A 25% chance of inheriting two normally functioning genes. A 50% chance of inheriting only one altered gene and becoming a carrier.

X-linked recessive inheritance X-linked conditions like Fragile X syndrome occur when there is a gene mutation on the X chromosome. An X-linked condition is usually inherited from a woman who is a carrier of the condition. Carrier females have a working copy of a gene on one X chromosome and an altered copy on the other. Women pass on one of their X chromosomes in each egg. When the X chromosome with the mutation is passed on in an egg and a Y chromosome is passed on in a sperm, the resulting male fetus will have the X-linked condition. Males with X-linked inheritance are generally affected and females are unaffected carriers. However, X-linked inheritance is complex. Depending on the specific disease and mutation, an affected boy may be symptom-free or a carrier girl may have mild symptoms.

Chromosomal disorders Chromosomal disorders arise from errors in an entire chromosome rather than mutations in a single gene. These errors occur when the egg and sperm are forming and may be inherited from either the father or the mother. Perhaps the most familiar chromosomal disorder is Down syndrome, which occurs when a child receives three copies of a certain chromosome instead of two. Other birth defects result when chromosomes are broken, missing, or rearranged. Unlike single-gene diseases, chromosomal disorders cannot be predicted by screening parents before pregnancy. There are screening tests your doctor may recommend during pregnancy to help determine whether your fetus is at a greater risk for chromosomal disorder. Prenatal disgnostic tests (CVS or amniocentesis) will reveal whether your baby's chromosomes are normal. Because the risk of chromosome abnormalities increases as women age, doctors will typically recommend prenatal testing for mothers who will be over 35 at the time of birth.

Multifactorial diseases A great number of diseases, such as diabetes, congenital heart defects, spina bifida, and cancer, are now known to have a hereditary component. These are called "multifactorial" diseases because they are caused not by a single gene mutation, but by a combination of genetic and environmental factors working together in ways that aren't yet fully understood. Genetic screening for mutations associated with multifactorial diseases can only tell you about your risk. It cannot predict whether you will develop the disease. For instance, a woman who inherits an alteration in the BRCA2 gene is more likely than other women to develop breast cancer, but she may also remain disease-free. The altered gene is only one risk factor among many. Lifestyle, environment, and other biological factors also play a part. If you are concerned about a health problem that seems to run in your family, and want to know whether your genes put you or your children at increased risk, you may want to talk to a genetic counselor about what tests are available.

Module 4: Learning Outcomes-2 completing this learning module, the student will be able to: After 1.

Discuss the 3 stages of Selye's General Adaptation Syndrome.

2.

Contrast Selye's work on stress with outcomes of research in the last 25 years.

3.

Draw a schematic illustrating the physiological stress response.

4.

Discuss the relationship between genetics and stress related disease.

5.

Identify stress-related diseases or conditions and body system most affected by eac

6.

Describe the effects of stress on the immune system.

7.

Delineate psychological factors that mediate the stress response....