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Alcohol Dependence Essay Alcohol dependence in Australian indigenous communities Alcohol plays a vital role in Australian culture and is consumed in many different social situations. In most circumstances, it is consumed at low levels. However, many Australians exceed the safety standards of drinking which can lead to health complications throughout their life, as well as being more susceptible to alcohol related injuries. In Australia, it is the most commonly consumed psychoactive drug (Australian government, 2018), if not the world. This drug can a have significant psychological and sociological impacts. When alcohol is consumed on a regular basis, it can lead to alcohol dependence which is the most severe form of a drinking problem (Drinkaware, 2018). Alcohol dependence, also known as ‘alcoholism' is described by Drinkaware (2018) as having a strong craving to drink, often ‘overpowering'. Drinking is a fundamental part of everyday life for people dependent on alcohol; this can lead to tolerance or even withdrawals if they no longer have access to it. Understanding the effects that alcohol has physically and neurologically will assist in a better understanding of why alcohol dependence has become so prevalent in Australian indigenous communities. Alcohol is classed as a psychoactive drug which means when consumed it can affect how messages travel between the brain and body. It has short-term positive effects when consumed in low quantities, and they can include reduced inhibitions, feeling relaxed, increased confidence and sense of happiness (Sayette, 2017). However, when consumed in high quantities or over an extended period of time the adverse effects out way the positives, such as liver cirrhosis, and chronic disease (DrinkWise Australia, 2018). The National Health and Medical Research Council (NHMRC) (2014) conducted a survey over 2012-13 that identified that 54% of indigenous Australians exceeded the safe levels of drinking in 0

Alcohol Dependence Essay the previous 12 months, this is 1.1 times higher than non-indigenous Australians. This is one mechanism as to why indigenous Australians have higher rates of dependency. Excessive alcohol use and alcohol dependence in Australian indigenous communities have had a direct influence on their culture, health and how society perceives their class.

Alcohol dependence doesn’t just affect one type of person, it can affect anyone from any background but how society perceives it can change depending on different variables. The modern patterns of alcohol consumption in Aboriginal communities cannot be understood without knowing the historical context in which they started. Before the ‘first fleet’ arrived in Australia aboriginals had mild exposure to alcohol from homemade healing brews (Wilson, Stearne, Gray, & Saggers, 2010). However, following European contact, accessibility to alcohol became more prominent and was used as a currency for sex and labor between the colonist and the aboriginal people (Langton, 1993). Soon after the adverse psychological and sociological impacts on these communities became noticeable. Many indigenous in these communities turned to alcohol as a way of escaping the hurt and pain caused by the devastating effects colonisation had on their people. Until the 1967 referendum aboriginals were seen by society as animals due to their “race” under the fauna and flora act (Thomas, 2017). This caused segregation from the white settlers. Even to this day there are many inequalities between indigenous and non-indigenous in Australia. However, inequalities in health status are avoidable and only exist due to social inequalities. Germov (2013) discusses the difference between structural inequalities and neoliberalism and argues that equal treatment of unequal individuals will only 1

Alcohol Dependence Essay prolong the inequalities already there. The divide in health from Australian indigenous to non-indigenous is too vast to just be discussed from an individual or ‘neoliberalism’ point of view. An individual’s choices throughout their life would undoubtedly affect their health status. However, it is important to look at health status and the inequalities of a whole population from a structural view under a large number of domains that comprise of family dynamics, local and regional areas, and on a national level. Furthermore, acknowledging that there are many societal factors that influence an individual’s life that they cannot control that will also affect their overall health status. These consist of socioeconomic resources, access to education, employment opportunities and health care. One of the biggest inequalities in Australia is the variation in mortality and morbidity between indigenous and nonindigenous. Statistics show that life expectancy for Aboriginal males is 10.6 years lower than non-indigenous males and 9.5 for females (AHIA, 2017). It is estimated that 7% of Australian indigenous deaths are the result of alcohol-induced conditions or harmful alcohol use (Wilson et al., 2017). In April 2007 a campaign called ‘Close the Gap’ was started to reduce the variations in health and life expectancy between indigenous and non-indigenous Australians (Australian Human Rights Commission, 2018). This campaign has been going for over 10 years and hopes to close the gap within a life time. However, since it has started the observable results have negligibly. Furthermore, studies have found that aboriginal communities have disproportionate rates of domestic violence and child abuse which was commonly associated with alcohol but could not credited to a single cause (CFCA, 2012). This relates back to Germovs (2013) argument that equal treatment of unequal individuals will only prolong the inequalities, as indigenous 2

Alcohol Dependence Essay Australians have been at a disadvantage to non-indigenous ever since European settlers first arrived in Australia. They have suffered from societal mechanisms of exclusion and cultural loss.

Culture is fundamental to Australian indigenous people. It is a part of who they are and essential to focus on when incorporating alcohol-related policies and strategies in Aboriginal communities. Australia has numerous alcohol rehabilitation programs that work for western civilization. However, these programs are not as effective as culture-specific programs. Studies show that culture-specific rehabilitation programs have better outcomes for patients than generic rehabilitation programs (Wilson et al., 2010). One study by Rowan et al., (1995) recommends a combination of Australian indigenous and native Canadian treatment models to be incorporated into the 12 steps of Alcoholics Anonymous. It suggests that not only could this be a curing agent for alcohol abuse but used as a preventive in regional aboriginal communities. Another study by Munro, Shakeshaft and Clifford (2017) showed that indigenous Australians with alcohol and substance abuse problems who were previously incarcerated are less likely to recidivism into both prison and substance dependence if they had access to comprehensive, operative and culturally safe residential rehabilitation treatment. Culture is so vital to indigenous communities in that rehabilitation needs to be specific as the loss of cultural identity is a mechanism for the high prevalence of alcohol dependence. One initiative taken by the Northern Territory Government (2017) to reduce alcohol misuse and dependence is alcohol restrictions in high-risk remote areas such Katherine region, Tennant Creek and Barkly, East Arnhem and Alice Springs and 3

Alcohol Dependence Essay Central Australia. Some examples of these restrictions include Yulara where you can only buy takeaway alcohol if you are a guest at the resort and even harsher restrictions in areas such as Ti Tree and Burrow creek where you cannot buy takeaway alcohol at all. There are more than 100 communities ‘dry areas' in the Northern territory where alcohol is banned entirely under Australian law (Northern Territory Government, 2017). Another law by the Northern Territory Government (2017) put in place was that anyone arrested for being under the influence of alcohol more than three times in two months had to undergo three months of rehabilitation in detention. This law has faced a lot of criticism by human rights groups as it is suggested to be discriminating and unfairly targeting Aboriginal people, with more than 86% of the offenders being indigenous (Davidson, 2017). These restrictions have been put in place to protect the communities and reduce the harms alcohol causes in remote areas. However, another issue with these restrictions is bad batches of alcohol also known as ‘moonshine’ or ‘hooch’ entering these remote indigenous communities and causing significant harm to the residents who reside there (Wilson et al., 2010). Australian indigenous people have lost and are still losing their culture through the integration of other cultures into Australia. Due to spiritual oppression and the erosion of traditional values and culture, this could be a massive contributor to the increase of alcohol misuse and dependence in aboriginal communities.

Identity is a fundamental part of aboriginal culture and indigenous Australians have become trapped by the stereotypes and racial slurs non-indigenous people have placed on them. Germov (2013) discusses class analysis and the differences in class 4

Alcohol Dependence Essay between people and the inequalities that develop with social status. This is important to look at as it coincides with belief that Indigenous Australians are still treated and seen as second-class citizens. Pedersen, Beven, Walker and Griffiths (2004) suggest that the damage from colonisation, racism and dispossession have generated adverse intergenerational affects. The stolen generation is one of the most outstanding acts of racism against the indigenous population. This has caused mental health trauma to not only those who were taken through the loss their individual mob cultures but their families, community and other social structures. This trauma resonates throughout the generation leading the possibility of alcohol as a form of creating new relationships and coping with subsequent loss of community. Following the stolen generation, the act of placing indigenous communities on missions, dispossess them from their land severing the cultural link they have with the land (Wilson et al., 2010). Linking the stolen generation and dispossession land has huge impact on the cultural identity of each tribe as they have lost the linage through which cultural values and stories will be passed through but the land they use to teach those values and stories (Loos, 2017). The unresolved trauma over many generations has caused indigenous people to suppress the pain they are feeling to cope. These feeling have been kept within their communities and families, leading to the development negative behaviours such as alcohol and drug abuse, family violence and suicide. These negative behaviours and loss of cultural identity can be seen as having limited the socio-economic progression of indigenous Australians. It is currently seen in society that a large percentage of indigenous Australians live below the poverty line causing further reductions in mental and cultural health (Klein, 2016). Incarceration rates of indigenous Australians is significantly higher than non5

Alcohol Dependence Essay indigenous with this possibly stemming from their disproportionate representation within the lower socio-economic levels and higher alcohol dependence rates (Davidson, 2017). Having reduced Socio-economic status is also connected with reduced education levels and reduced access to medical resources. Education and medical access is an important aspect most rehabilitation strategies and managements plans.

Assessment of alcohol dependence must be wide-ranging, to cover all reason causative to the addiction. Alcohol has shown to alter and affect the way an individual thinks and acts. This is important to look at when discussing alcohol dependence in indigenous Australian communities and rehabilitation programs. As shown above history demonstrates that alcohol has had adverse influences on indigenous Australians culture through suppression if spiritual oppression, the erosion of culture values taught by elders and the land in which they live. As previously stated Germovs (2013) argument is insightful into the sociological affects alcohol has caused in these communities. To treat indigenous Australians equally to non-indigenous Australians would only prolong the inequalities inherent in the structure of a colonist nation. As previously stated indigenous Australians have substantial variances in morbidity and mortality but with the implementation of campaigns such as ‘close the gap’ these variances may disappear within a lifetime. However, the social construct and stereotypes surrounding indigenous populations with relation to alcohol dependency and healthcare may not change in this life time due to underpinning historical and social discrimination. Further to this the socioeconomic dispossession of indigenous Australians in society 6

Alcohol Dependence Essay remains as a roadblock to progress. The inability of indigenous Australians to matriculate into higher class structures due to systemic conscious and unconscious racial bias remains a schism to the application of healthcare practices regarding indigenous Australians. If things are to ever change for indigenous Australians, social ques and labelling must undergo significant metamorphosis.

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Alcohol Dependence Essay consumption.html Australian government. (2018). Drug trends and statistics. Retrieved from https://campaigns.health.gov.au/drughelp/drug-trends-and-statistics Australian Human Rights Commission. (2018). Close the Gap: Indigenous Health Campaign. Retrieved from https://www.humanrights.gov.au/ourwork/aboriginal-and-torres-strait-islander-social-justice/projects/close-gapindigenous-health Davidson, H. (2017, August 18). Northern Territory repeals alcohol laws ‘discriminatory’ to Indigenous people. The Guardian. Retrieved from https://www.theguardian.com/australia-news/2017/aug/18/northernterritory-repeals-alcohol-laws-discriminatory-to-indigenous-people Drinkaware. (2018). Alcohol Dependence. Retrieved from https://www.drinkaware.co.uk/alcohol-facts/health-effects-ofalcohol/mental-health/alcohol-dependence/ DrinkWise Australia. (2018). How is your drinking affecting you?. Retrieved from https://drinkwise.org.au/drinking-and-you/how-is-your-drinking-affectingyou/# Germov, J. (Ed.). (2013). Second opinion: an introduction to health sociology. (5th ed.). Melbourne: Oxford University Press. Klein, E. (2016). Universal basic income. Arena Magazine (Fitzroy, Vic), (142), 6. Retrieved from https://search.informit.com.au/documentSummary;dn=164676644205568;re s=IELAPA Langton, M. (1993). Rum, seduction and death: ‘Aboriginality and alcohol’. Oceania, 8

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