A&P Final EXAM Study Guide PDF

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Comprehensive Study Guide to Anatomy and Pathophysiology...

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A&PFi nalEXAM Know t hedi ffer enceof physi ol ogyandanat omy

ANATOMY=st r uct ur e PHYSI OLOGY=f unct i on

Under st andchemi caland cel l ul aror gani zat i on

Chemi cal :at om -mol ecul e-ce l l-t i ssue-or gan-or gansyst em -or gani sm

Defineposi t i vef eedback

Ex.bl oodc l ot t i ngorl aboranddel i ver y .Ast i mul ust hatcausesani ni t i alchanget hatcont i nuesand exagger at est heeffect .

Dor sal( cr ani al ) br ai n/s pi nalcor dt hor aci c-l ungs/hear tabdomi nal -s t omach/smal l /l ar ge ganwi t hi t sbodyi Know t heor nt es t i ne;l i ver /ki dneys/pancr easpel vi cbl adder /r epr o.or gans cavi t y Definewhatf oodsar e bohydr at es consi der edcar

Expl ai nwhatasynt hesi s s r eact i oni

St ar ch,sugar ,br ead,r i ce,oat s,wheat ,f r ui t Monosacchar i des,pol ysacchar i des,di sacc har i des combi ni ngoft woormor esubst ancest of or m amor ecompl exsubst ance;f or mat i onofnew chemi cal bonds:A+B =AB.Thesubst ancespr esentbef or et her eact i onar ecal l edr e act ant s.Ther esul t i ng subst ancei scal l edapr oduct .

Hydr ogenbonds-at t r actandf or m weakbonds.H+i onsar eaci di candl owerpH. H2O i sapol arcoval entbond.Unequalshar i ngoft hebonds.Thepol arends( +)and( )at t r actt o Expl ai nwhathappenst o eachot herandf or m bondst hateasi l ydi ssoci at e-maki ngwat eragr e atsol ventt or e l easei onsi nt o oodandbodyflui ds. hydr ogen i onsi n asol ut i on bl Whi chpar t i cl esi nt er act wi t hot herat oms

El ect r onsont heout ershel l( val enceshe l l )

Theout er mostl ayerofacel lmadeofaphosphol i pi dbi l ayer .( dr aw t hi s-t hel i pi dheadsar e hydr ophi l i c;t ai l sar ehydr ophobi c ● pr ovi desst r uct ur eandpr ot ect i ont ot hepl asmaandor ganel l esi nsi de ● semiper meabl e ● e l ec t r ochemi calgr adi ent s ● communi cat i on Whati spl asmamembr ane How dor ecept orpr ot ei ns f unct i on?

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Pr ot ei nson t hepl asmamembr ane: ● Tr anspor t er s( channe l s,car r i er s ,pumps ● Cel lsur f acer ec ept or( bondt ol i gands) 1

● ● ● ●

Anchor i ng( secur ecyt oskel e t ont omembr ane Recogni t i on( ant i gen,“ namet ag” ) Enzyme Cel ladhesi on( cel lt oc el lat t achment s)

Descr i bet hef unc t i onof l ysosomes

Di gest /Engul f :br eakdownmol ecul eswi t hi nv esi c l est hatent ercel lbyendocyt osi s;r emov e damagedcel lcomponent sandbr eakdowncel lcomponent s“ AUTOLYSI S”

Descr i bet hef unc t i onof sodi um channel si nt he axol emma

Sodi um c hannel sopenandcl oset oal l ow f orac t i onpot ent i al st omoveal ongt heaxonandsend mot orandsensoryi nf or mat i on.

Whatcausest heaor t at o expandandr ecoi l ?

El ast i cConnect i ve t i ssue

Epi t hel i alt i ssuesar ef orcover i ngsorl i ni ngs.Thei rcel l sar et i ght l ypackedt oge t her ,andgoodf or at t achment s. avascul ar r e gener at eof t en( mi t osi s) pr ot ect i on sensat i on( nervefiber s) secr e t i ons( gl andswi t hi nt heepi t hel i um maysecr e t esweatormucous) TYPES:si mpl esquamous=oneflatl ayerofcel l s;st r at i fiedsquamous=manyflatcel ll ayer s;si mpl e Descr i beepi t hel i alcel l sand orst r at i fiedcuboi dal ;t r ansi t i onal=bl adder ;si mpl eorpseudost r at i fiedcol umnar=secr e t i on, pr ot ect i on,mi cr ovi l l i( absor pt i on) ,ci l i a( movement ) ;s t r at i fiedcol umnar=gl ands how t heyf unct i on Whati st hef unct i onof Denser egul arCT.Par al l elcol l age nfiber swi t hf ew fibr obl ast s,andl i t t l evascul ar i z at i on.At t ach l et obone,andar est r ongi nONE di r ect i on. t endonsandi t scomposi t i on? musc Descr i beskel et al ,smoot h andcar di acmuscl e

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SKELETAL:v ol unt ar y . ● Hi ghl yi nnervat edandf ul lofnucl ei . ● St r i at ed ● Pr ovi desbodyheat ,fiber scont r act ,shor t eni ngmusc l esandmovi ngbonesorski n ● Cel l sdonotdi vi de SMOOTH:i nvol unt ary; ● vi sc er al& v essel s. ● Cel l sdi vi de ● Cont r actandr el axt odi ges tf ood,oral t erbl oodpr essur e CARDI AC:i nvol unt ar y 2

● Few nucl ei ● Communi cat et hr oughGAPj unct i onsbet weeni nt er cal at eddi scst ohel pmuscl ecel l s synchr oni zecont r act i ons ● br anched ● I nnervat ed ● Noce l ldi vi si on ● Mor emi t ochondr i at hanskel et almusc l e! !Usesaer obi cr espi r at i ont oge tATPnol act i caci d bui l dup! ! Definest r at um basal e

Thebot t om l ayeroft heski n( epi der mi s)t hatat t achest ot hebasementmembr ane.ONE LAYER. Cont ai nsst em cel lker at i nocyt es,mel anocyt esandt act i l ecel l s( mer kelcel l s)

Whatdoest hebodydot obe Capi l l ar i esdi l at east heybr i ngmor ehotbl oodt ot heski n’ ssur f acet or e l easet heheat .Sweat& evapor at i on abl et ocooldown? Definet hef ol l owi ng:

Mel ani n

PI GMENTpr oducedandst or edi nmel anocyt es( s t r at um basal e) .Jobi st opr ot ec tt heDNAi nt he l anocyt es ,butdi fferi nt hec ol or nucl eusf r om UVr adi at i on.Al lpeopl ehavet hesameNUMBER ofme i ghtst i mul at esmel anocyt est omakemor eme l ani n. & Ac t i vi t y.UVl

Apocr i ne

Gl andt hatpi nchesofft heapi calpor t i onoft hecel lt osecr e t e.Ex.mi l kpr oduct i onofmammary gl and. Apocr i nesweat :STI NKY puber t ysweatwi t hf at sandpr ot ei ns

Eccr i ne

AkaMer ocr i ne .SWEAT.Rel easedf r om secr e t oryvesi cl esbyexocyt osi s.t her mor egul at i on! !

Sebaceous

Oi lgl andst hatsecr e t ese bum,bact er i ci dal ,canbeat t achedt ohai rf ol l i cl e.“ Hol ocr i ne”gl ands

Cer umi nous

Apocr i nesweatgl andsi nt hecarcanal .Earwax“ cer umen”i swat er pr oof

Thef or mat i onofl ongbonesi nembr yo: 1.Begi nsashyal i necar t i l agemodel 2.Bl oodi nvadesandbr i ngsfibr obl ast s→ di ffer ent i at ei nt oost eobl ast s.Spongybonel ai ddown i ndi aphysi s 3.Di aphysi sbec omesbone;epi physi sossi f y .Boner epl acescar t i l age,except :epi physealpl at es r emai nascar t i l aget oal l ow f orgr owt h Li stt hest epsof 4.Epi physealc l osur e-l ongbonedowngr owi ng.Al i nei sl e f tbehi nd. endochondr alossi ficat i on Expl ai nhow cal ci um i s r el easedi nt ot hebody

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Low bl oodcal ci um si gnal s: 1. PARATHYROI D HORMONE:act sonbonest oact i vat eost eol ysi s:ost eoc l ast sbr eakdown& r e l easeCa+ 3

2. Smal li nt est i nest oi ncr easeabsor pt i onofcal ci um f r om f oods 3. ki dneyst or e l easeCALCI TRI OLt odecr easecal ci um excr et i oni nur i ne * * CALCI TONI N doest heopposi t eoft hi s,i ft her ei shi ghbl oodcal ci um* * Spongybone:l i ght wei ghtandl acel i ke.Themat r i xi sar r angedi nt r abecul ae.I ti savascul arand suppor t sandpr ot ect sbonemar r ow cel l s Descr i becompactboneand Compactbone;dense.Ar r angedi nconcent r i cl amel l ae,f or mi ngost eons( Thi nkofst r awsonei nsi de spongybone anot her . ) .Madeofcol l agenandcal ci um sal t s/cal ci um/phosphat es . Whati sconser vedi nbone? Cal ci um,phosphat e,col l agen Descr i bet hef unc t i onoft he f ol l owi ng:( 2ques t i ons)

Mi t ochondr i a

ENERGY!Di ges tgl ucoset opr oduceATP.he l pwi t hapopt osi s. TheKr eb’ scy cl e( Ci t r i caci dcycl e)happensi nt hemi t ochondr i a.AEROBI C gl ycol ysi s.O2pl ust he gl ucose( br okeni nt o2pyr uvat es)⇒ gi vesoffATPener gy ,CO2,H2O & heat

Tt ubul es

Al l ow act i onpot ent i alt ogodeepi nt ot hesar col emma.

Sar copl asmi cr et i cul um

Li keafishnetst ocki ngar oundt hemuscl ec el l .Cont ai nCa+.Theendsoft hesar copl asmi c r e t i cul um ar ecal l edt er mi nalci st er nae,andt heybumpupagai nstt het t ubul es

Sar comer es

Thef unct i onaluni tofamusc l efiber( akamusc l ece l l . ) Ml i nei nt hecent er( myosi n) .Cont ai ncont r act i l epr ot ei ns( act i n,myosi n,t i t i n) .Cal ci um r emoves t r opomyosi nf r om t heact i n.Myosi nat t achest oact i n“ cr ossbr i dgef or ms” .Myosi nheadpower s t r okeshor t ensmyofil ament s.Al lsar c omer esshor t en⇒ muscl ec ont r act i on.

1.Anaer obi cgl ycol ysi s:happensi nt hecyt opl asm.Gl ucosebr eaksdownt o2PYRUVATESand gi vesoffl act i caci d.Thi spr oduces2ATP 2.Aer obi cRespi r at i on:“ Kr eb’ scy cl e”or“ Ci t r i caci dcycl e”-occ ur si nt hemi t ochondr i a:2 pyr uvat esent ert hemi t ochondr i a.AddO2;gi vesoffCO2,H2O & heat⇒ NET30ATP ( 15/pyr uvat e) Muscl eEner gySour ces: ATP Cr eat i nePhosphat e:ATPt hati sn’ tbei ngusedbyar es t i ngmuscl ei st r ansf er r edt ocr eat i net obe or ef orl at eruse How i sener gypr oducedi n st Gl ycogen:mostabundantener gyst or esi nmusc l es . muscl efiber s ? ocess Seeabove Whatoccur si nt hepr AP FINAL

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ofgl ycol ysi swheni tpr oduces ATP? Res t i ngmembr anepot ent i ali s70. DEPOLARI ZATI ON ( 70t o+30)Sodi um c hanne l sopen,sodi um ent er st hecel lmembr aneand i nsi debecomesmor eposi t i veunt i li tr eachest hr eshol d( 55) .Sodi um r ushi ngi n,unt i lmembr ane get st o+30 REPOLARI ZATI ON:K+l eavi ng;i nsi debecomesmor e( )andr et ur nst or es t ar i z at i onofan HYPERPOLARI Descr i bedepol ZATI ON:whent hei nsi debecomesev enmor enegat i vepas t70( t her est i ng pot ent i al ) axon CNS:Ol i godendr ocyt es Descr i behow myel l l s“ NEUROLEMMOCYTES” .Eachschwanncel lonl ymyel i nat esonepor t i onofan i n sheat h PNS:Schwannce axon.The“ naked”ar easar ecal l edNodesofRanvi er i sf or med Br i ngi nf or mat i oni n MBS& BODYWALL:t hr uant er i orr amus⇒ i cmot orFROM LI Definehow somat FROM BACK:t hr upost er i orr amus⇒ neur onsf unct i on( skel et al → conver geatSPI NALNERVE,andent erVENTRALROOT( spi nalcor d) musc l e) How i si nf or mat i on gi ven t o t hecent r alnervoussyst em?Affer entneur ons? Whent henervedepol ar i z esandsendsasi gnal .Cansendi tbySALTATORYPROPAGATI ON ( j ump nodet onode)orCONTI NUOUSPROPAGATI ON ( sl ower ) wayssendst hesi gnalf r om t hecel lbodyt owar dt heaxont er mi nal Defineanact i on pot ent i alAl

Descr i beamonosynapt i c r eflex

REFLEX t hatdoesnotdependont hebr ai n,butsynapsesi nt hegr eymat t eroft hespi nalcor d. I nvol ves2neur ons. Ex:pat el l ars t r e t chr eflex. St i mul us→ Recept or( muscl espi ndl est r et ches)→ Sensor yneur ont r ave l si nt hr ought hedor salr oot → synapseswi t hmot orneur on→ t r av el soutt hr ought hevent r alr oot

How doessensoryneur ons t owar dCNS) andmot orneur onssendand SENSORY:AFFERENT( r ecei vei nf or mat i on MOTOR:EFFERENT( awayf r om CNS) opr i ocept or s.cer ebel l um. How i spost ur eandbal ance Pr obt ai ned Whoi st her esponsi bl ef or AP FINAL

TEMPORALLOBE:ol f act orycor t exr ecei vest hesmel lf r om chemor ecept or si nt henose 5

senseofsmel l

Descr i bet hef unc t i onsoft he hypot hal amus

Ol f act or yassoci at i onar eas:r ecogni z ewhatt hesmel li s. 1.Subconsci ousf aci ale xpr essi on 2.Aut onomi cf unc t i ons 3.Regul at or yhor mones 4.“ Mast erGl and”-pr oducehor monest hatgot opi t ui t ar y 5.Regul at eshunger /t hi r s t ,Ci r cadi anr hyt hms,Ther mor egul at i on

PROTECTI ON.Ast r ocyt esi nt heCNSwr apar oundvesse l si nner v oust i ssueandsecr e t echemi cal s Descr i bet hef unc t i onoft he t of or m TI GHTJUNCTI ONSbe t weent hecel l s.Keepshar mf ulsubst ancesoutoft hebr ai n/ner vous bl oodbr ai n bar r i er t i ssue.

Definewhatt hecr ani al nervesr esponsi bl ef or( 12 cr ani alner ves) SENSORY MOTOR BOTH

I( 1)Ol f act ory:smel l I I( 2)Opt i c:vi si on I I I( 3)Occul omot or :eyebal lmovement I V( 4)Tr ochl ear :eyemov ement V( 5)Tr i gemi nal :sensat i oni nt eet h,f ace,assi stwi t hchewi ng VI( 6)Abducens:mov est heeyel at er al l y VI I( 7)Faci al :f acemov ement sandi nv ol vedi nt ast e VI I I( 8)Ves t i bul ocochl ear :ear ,hear i ng,equi l i br i um I X( 9)Gl ossophar yngeal :t ast e,swal l owi ng X( 10)Vagus:vi scer ali nt er nalor ganf unct i ons XI( 11)Accessor y:nec kandshoul dermov ement XI I( 12)Hypogl ossal :t onguemov ement

Descr i bet hef unc t i onoft he f ol l owi ng: Noci cept or s

Det ec tpai nTONI C-al waysact i ve,sl ow t or eact

Thermor ecept or s

Temper at ur e( especi al l ycol d)PHASI C-r espondt ochanges;st ar tands t opfir i ng

Pr opr i ocept or s

Bodyposi t i oni nspace.TONI C

Bar or ecept or s

Pr essur echangesi nvesse lwal l

Chemor ecept or s

Chemi cal si nbl ood,orai r ;scent s,pH,H+i ons,PHASI C

Whatar et hef unct i onsoft he PARASYMPATHETI C:r e standdi gest“ Thor acol umbar ” sympat het i cand SYMPATHETI C:fightorfli ght“ Cr ani osacr al ” par asympat het i csyst em Whati st hef unct i onoft he AP FINAL

Recept or st hatDe t ec tCOLOR i nr e t i naofeye 6

conei nt heeye Semi ci r cul arcanal sdet ec theadr ot at i on. 1.Headmoves 2.Endol ymphmoves 3.Cupul a( ge l fil l ed)moves 4.Hai rcel l sge tdi st or t ed( mec hanor ecept or s) How ar epeopl eabl et or ot at e 5.Act i onpot ent i alsent t hei rhead Descr i bet hef ol l owi ng:

OSSI CLES:Thr eebonesi nt heear .At t achedt omusc l est hatcancont r actt opr ot ec tf r om l oud noi ses

Themal l eus

Thehammer .Mov edbyt ympani cmembr ane

Thei ncus

Themi ddl ebone

Thest apes

Pushessoundwavest hr ought heovalwi ndow i nt ot heper i l ymphflui d

DECREASED SENSI TI VI TYt oacont i nuouss t i mul us.Theamountofdet ai lcomi ngi nt ot hebr ai n ongsensor ypat hwaysr e st r i ct saf t erawhi l e.Ex.smel lst opsbei ngr e l ayedaf t erawhi l e Definecent r aladapt at i on al Descr i behow i sbr eastmi l k pr oduced PROLACTI N:r e l easedbyAnt er i orpi t ui t ary .St i mul at esmammar ygl andst opr oducemi l k Expl ai nt hepr ocessofhow bl oodpr essur ei ncr eases

I fbl oodpr essur ei sLOW, ● Al dost er oneact sonki dneyst or eabsor bSODI UM ● ADH act sonKi dneyst ovasoconst r i ctandr e t ai nWATER

GLUCOSE v .I NSULI N Whenbl oodgl ucosei sHI GH:pancr easr e l easesI NSULI N whi chal l owscel l st ot akeupt hegl ucose oodgl ucosei sLOW:pancr easr el easesGLUCAGON whi chact sonLI ver( br eakdown Descr i behow bl oodgl ucose Whenbl gl ycogen)andadi poset i ssue( br eakdownf at s) i smai nt ai ned Descr i bet hef unc t i onoft he f ol l owi ng: Lut ei ni zi nghor mone

Act sont heOVARI ES:t or e l easepr oges t er one“ pr egnancypr epar at i on”OVULATI ON Act sonTESTES:t or e l easeandr ogens→ secondarysexchar act er i st i cs

Fol l i cl est i mul at i ng hor mone

Act sonovar i est or e l easees t r ogen;causesf ol l i c l egr owt handsecondar yse xchar act er i st i cs Act sonTest est opr oduce& mat ur es per m

Pr ol act i n

Act sont hemammarygl andst opr oducemi l k

Pr ogest er one

Ovar i esr el easepr oges t er one( causesovul at i on)

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THYROI Dr el easesCALCI TONI N.Act sonbone( st opt heost eocl ast s) ,smal li nt es t i ne( decr ease Descr i behow cal ci um pt i on)& ki dneys( secr e t ecal ci um i nur i ne) concent r at i onsar er educed absor edbl oodcel l s How dor t r ans por toxygen

Boundt ot heheme

Expl ai nt heel ement sof bl ood

55% Pl asma( 92% wat er ,7% pr ot ei ns,1% ot her ) 45% FORMED ELEMENTS: RBC:44% WBC Pl at el et s

NO NUcl eus t ochondr i a( ATP)bec ausewedon' twantATPt ouseupourOxygen! edbl ood NO mi I dent i f ywhatdoesr AHeme& I r oncanhol doneO2⇒ Hemogl obi n( 4oxygenmol ec ul es) cel l scont ai n at i on Out l i net hecoagul phaseofbl oodcl ot t i ng

I nt r i nsi cpat h( f act or si nbl ood)→ Fact orX ←-Ext r i nsi cpat h( f act or sf r om vesse lwal l ) Fr om Fact orX,bot hent ert heCOMMON PATHWAY→ pr ot hr ombi nase→ pr ot hr ombi n→ t hr ombi n→ fibr i nogen→ Fi br i n

Tr acet heor derofbl oodflow I dent i f ywher eoxygenat ed anddeoxygenat edbl oodi s f ound

Oxygenat ed:al lt hear t er i es,l ef tat r i um & vent r i cl e,pul monaryv ei ns, Deoxygenat ed:al lt hevei ns,r i ghtat r i um & vent r i cl e,pul monar yar t er i es

Whati soccur r i ngwhenyou S1LUBB:AVval vecl osi ng;Par t1ofvent r i cul arsys t ol e/at r i aldi ast ol e l unarval vescl osi ng;At r i al& Vent r i cul ardi ast ol e hearS1andS2hear tsoundsS2DUPP:semi Pwave:depol ar i z at i onoft heat r i a QRScompl ex:vent r i cl esdepol ar i z e;c ont r actshor t l yaf t erR wave Twave:v ent r i cul arr epol ar i zat i on

di accycl e Expl ai nt hecar AP FINAL

S1:LUBB AVval vescl ose( at r i aldi ast ol e,vent r i cul arsys t ol ePar t1) Par t2at r i aldi ast ol e,vent r i cul arsys t ol e:somebl oodi sl e f tbehi ndi nt hevent r i cl es“ EndSyst ol i c Vol ume” S2:DUPP:Semi l unarval vescl ose( A& V di ast ol e) S3:A& VDi ast ol e:vent r i cl efil l i ng S4:ASys t ol e( cont r act s) ,Vdi ast ol e st ar tagai nwi t hS18

Descr i bet hedi ffer encei n venousandar t er i albl ood pr essur es

Venouspr essur ei sl ow Ar t er i alpr essur ei shi gh,andget sl owerasi tappr oachescapi l l ar ybeds.

Thepr essur eoft hei ncomi ngbl oodt hatpushesOUTflui ds,i ons,et c.FI LTRATI ON.Hydr ost at i c l l ar yhydr ost at i c Definecapi pr e ssur ei shi ghestatt hear t er i alendofcapi l l ar y( 35mmHg)andl owestatt hevenousend( 20mm Hg) pr essur e Expl ai nwhatoccur swhen bl oodpr essur edr opsand when i ti ncr eases

BPdr ops:vasocont r i ct i on;sodi um andwat err e t ent i on( ki dneyssecr e t eal dost er oone& Pi t ui t ar y secr e t esADH) ;i ncr easeBl oodvol ume→ i ncr easeBP BPi ncr eases:vasodi l at i on;NATr i Ur e t i cpept i descausei ncr easeNa+excr et i on( wat erf ol l ows) , decr easei nBl oodvol ume→ dr opi nBP

DEVELOPED i mmuni t yt hatr equi r esexposur et oanant i gen.Canbeact i veorpassi ve;nat ur al l yor ar t i fici al l yacqui r ed ● SPeci fic:B & Tcel l s,ant i bodi esr e spondt oonespeci ficant i gen ● Ver sat i l i t y:t hebodyhasasmal lnumberofeachspeci fict ype;andmi l l i onswai t i ngt o di ffer e nt i at et ot heant i genasneeded ● Memor y:at t ackapr evi ousant i geni fal at erexposur eoccur s ● Tol er ance:doesn’ tat t ach“ sel fcel l s” Defineadapt i vei mmuni t y Whatar et het wocat egor i es ohandcombat ;fightabnor malcel l sandpat hogensdi r ect l y ,i nsi deacel l . s TCELLS-handt ofl ymphocyt esandwhati t hei rf unc t i on B CELLS-humor ali mmuni t \y;makeant i bodi est ofightpat hogesni nbodyflui ds Whati st hef unct i onoft he l ymphat i csyst em nflammat i on Descr i bei Descr i behow surf ace t ensi on i sr educed

Mai nt ai nbl oodpr essur e Pr oducel ymphocyt es Removet oxi nsandwast ef r om flui ds/bl ood Redness,swel l i ng,heat ,pai n Sur f act ant( oi l ysubst ance)i nt er r upt st hehydr ogenbondi ngofwat ermol ec ul est oeachot heri n al veol i

essur esdur i ng Expl ai nt hepr i nhal at i on I nt r apl eur alpr essur edr opsbel ow at mospher i cpr essur e( 760)soai rcomesi nt ol ungs Descr i bewher ei shi gh par t i alpr essur eofoxygeni s l ocat ed Ar t er i es,pul monaryvei ns Expl ai nr espi r at oryaci dosi s Aci dosi s:hol di ngyourbr eat h.H+i onsbui l dup⇒ aci di c AP FINAL

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andr espi r at or yal kal osi s

Al kal osi s:hyper vent i l at i on.Bl owi ngofft oomuchH+& Co2⇒ al kal i ne

i caeci r cul ar i s Whi chf eat ur esoft hesmal l Pl i nt est i nei ncr easei t s VI LLI mi cr ovi l l i absor pt i veabi l i t y Descr i behow pH i s neut r al i zedwhenexi t i ngt he st omach Pancr eassecr e t esal kal i nedi ges t i v ej ui ces Expl ai nhow l i pi dsar e ges t ed br oken downanddi

Li paseenzymeemul si fies.Mechani caldi ges t i on( l i nguall i pase,gast r i cl i pase,pancr eat i cl i pase& bi l esal t s) Tubul arr ...