A&P I Chapters 1 -3 PDF

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Summary

This A&P I course was taught by Dr. Anthony Lepore. These lecture notes cover Chapters 1-3, which includes basic nformation on gross anatomy, systemic anatomy, regional anatomy, surface anatomy, anatomical imaging, physiology, tissues, organ systems, cavities, body regions, matter, mass, weight, and...

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Chapter 1 1. Anatomy - study of the body’s structures 2. Can be studied at various levels of anatomical study a. Cytology - microscopic study of cells b. Histology - microscopic study of tissues c. Gross anatomy - examining structures without the use of a microscope i. Grosso - large d. Systemic anatomy - studying the human body by considering one organ system at a time i. Example Digestive System (in order)

Accessory Digestive System

Oral cavity

Pancreas

Pharynx (throat)

Gallbladder

Esophagus

Liver

Stomach Small intestine (colon) Large intestine Rectum Anal cavity Anus e. Regional anatomy - studying the human body by areas i. Example: Head 1. Brain (nervous system) 2. Muscles (muscle system) 3. Bones (skeletal system) 4. Blood (cardiovascular system) f. Surface anatomy - studying the external aspects of the human body by feeling (palpating) g. Anatomical imaging - using x-rays, MRIs, and ultrasound to create pictures that will allow us to observe internal structures h. Surface anatomy/Anatomical anatomy are important to physicians 3. Physiology - study of the body’s functions 4. Tissue - consists of a group of 2 or more cells with similar structure and functions

5. There are 4 primary tissues types a. Epithelial tissue (epithelium) b. Connective tissue (support and structure) c. Muscle tissue d. Nervous tissue 6. 11 Major Organ Systems a. 1. Integumentary System (skin) b. 2. Skeletal System c. 3. Muscular System d. 4. Nervous System e. 5. Cardiovascular System f. 6. Endocrine System g. 7. Lymphatic System h. 8. Respiratory System i. 9. Digestive System j. 10. Urinary System k. 11. Reproductive System 7. Homeostasis - maintaining a constant environment inside the body that is suitable for life 8. Body Regions a. Upper Limb i. Arm - runs from the shoulder to elbow ii. Forearm - elbow to wrist iii. Wrist iv. Hand b. Lower Limb i. Thigh - hip down to your knee cap ii. Leg - knee to ankle iii. Ankle iv. Foot c. Central Regions i. Head ii. Neck iii. Trunk 1. Chest Thorax - thoracic cavity 2. Abdomen - abdominal cavity a. Region found between the chest and the pelvis 3. Pelvis - pelvic cavity a. Region associated with the hips 9. Body Cavities

a. Nasal cavity b. Cranial cavity c. Abdominal cavity i. Stomach ii. Small intestine iii. Large intestine (colon) iv. Spleen v. Liver vi. Gallbladder d. Pelvic cavity i. Urinary bladder ii. Part of the large intestine (colon) iii. Internal reproductive organs e. Thoracic cavity i. Lungs ii. Rib cage (surrounds this cavity) iii. Diaphragm - muscle that separates the thoracic cavity from the abdominal cavity iv. Divided into a right and left portion by the mediastinum (middle wall) v. Mediastinum contains: 1. Heart 2. Esophagus - digestive system 3. Trachea (windpipe) 4. Thymus gland a. Mediastinum separates the left and right chest b. Thyroid is NOT thymus 10. Serous membranes - covers organs; found in a body cavity a. Inner portion or wall or membrane is called the visceral serous membrane i. *Inner - Visceral (IV) b. Outer portion or wall or membrane is called the parietal serous membrane i. *Outer - Parietal (OP) c. Serous membranes protect organs from friction causes when organs rub against one another d. Examples of Serous Membranes i. Pleural Serous Membranes surrounds the lungs 1. Pleurisy - lung diseases ii. Pericardial Serous Membranes surround the heart iii. Peritoneal Serous Membranes surround organs found in the abdominal and pelvic cavities

Chapter 2 1. Matter - anything that occupies space and has mass 2. Mass - amount of matter in an object. a. International unit for mass is the kilogram (kg) 3. Weight - gravity/gravitational force acting on an object of a given weight/mass a. Example: the weight of your lab table results from the force of gravity pulling on the table’s mass 4. Element - simplest type of matter that has unique chemical properties 5. Atoms - simplest type or particle of an element that still retains the unique chemical properties of that element 6. Atoms are composed of 3 major types of subatomic particles a. Protons - positive charges b. Neutrons - no charge c. Electrons - negative charge 7. Protons and neutrons are found in the nucleus at the center of the atom 8. Electrons move around the nucleus 9. The nucleus (protons and neutrons) accounts for 99.97% of the atom’s mass 10. The electrons occupy most of the atom’s volume 11. Atomic number of an element is equal to the number of protons found in an atom 12. Since an atom is electronically neutral, the number of protons is equal to the number of electrons because the individual charges cancel each other a. Number of protons = number of electrons 13. The atomic number is also equal to the number of electrons orbiting the nucleus of any atom 14. Since protons and neutrons have very little mass, the mass number of an atom is equal to the sum of the protons and neutrons inside the nucleus of that atoms a. Mass number = atomic mass = Number of protons + number of neutrons i. Example: Fluorine (F) 1. Atomic # = 9 2. Mass # = 19 3. Protons = 9 4. Neutrons = 10 5. Electrons = 9 15. Isotopes are 2 or more forms of the same element that have the same number of protons and the same number of electrons but a different number of electrons 16. Therefore, isotopes always have the same atomic number but they have a different mass number a. Mass number = atomic number + number of neutrons

17. Isotopes must always have the same atomic number - otherwise we would have a different element a. Atomic number of C = 6 i. Carbon 12 1. 6 P, 6 E, 6 N ii. Carbon 13 1. 6 P, 6 E, 7 N iii. Carbon 14 1. 6 P, 6 E, 8 N 18. Avogadro’s Number - 6.022 x 10^23 = the number of entities contained in (atoms-ions-molecules) | 1 mole of any substance a. Mass number of an entity is expressed in unified atomic mass units or daltons is the same as the molar mass expressed in grams i. Mass number = atomic mass units/daltons ii. Molar mass = grams b. Since 22.99 daltons is the mass number (atomic mass) of Na (sodium atom), 22.99 grams of Na have Avogadro’s number of sodium atoms c. Since 1.008 daltons is the atomic mass (mass number) of hydrogen (H), then 1.008 ? of hydrogen have Avogadro’s number 6.022 x 10^23 atoms of hydrogen d. 1 mole of Na contains the same number of sodium (Na) atoms as 1 mole of water contains the same number of water molecules, and that number is 6.022 x 10^23 e. Therefore, 1 mole of any substance (atom, molecule, etc.) always have Avogadro’s number i. Mass = kg ii. Mass number (atomic mass) = (unified) atomic mass units = daltons iii. Molar mass = grams; 22.99 grams same for hydrogen 19. Chemical bonding happens when outermost electrons are transferred or shared between atoms 20. There are 2 major types of chemical bonds: ionic and covalent 21. An atom is electrically neutral because it has an equal number of protons and electrons a. When an atom is charged, its an ion 22. An atom can donate (give) or receive (gain) electrons with other atoms and when this occurs, ions are formed 23. Ions are charged particles since their number of protons and electrons are no longer equal 24. Atoms that lose electrons have more protons and therefore, are positively charged ions (cations) a. cat= + 25. Atoms that gain electrons have more electrons and therefore, are negatively charged ions (anions)

a. An = 26. Since positively charged ions attract each other, they form ionic bonds 27. Remember that 2 electrons fill up the first electron shell of an atom 28. However, 8 electrons up the second and third electron shells of an atom a. First 3 electron shells = 2-8-8 29. NaCl (sodium chloride) is an example of an ionic bond Sodium

Chlorine

Atomic number = 11

Atomic number = 17

Mass number = 23

Mass number = 35

a. Mass number = atomic number = number of neutrons 30. Covalent bond (covalent = sharing) happens when atoms share 1 or more pairs of outermost electrons 31. The sharing of 1 pair of electrons by 2 atoms forms a single covalent bond 32. The sharing of electrons by 2 atoms forms a double covalent bond 33. 4 Major Groups of Organic Molecules a. Carbohydrates b. Lipids c. Proteins d. Nucleic acids 34. Carbohydrates a. Monosaccharides are single (simple) sugars -> simple carbohydrates b. Disaccharides are a double sugar molecule or compounds composed of 2 simple sugars bound together through a dehydration reaction i. Saccharide - sugar molecule c. Ex: Monosaccharides ---> Disaccharides Glucose+fructose ---> sucrose (table sugar) Glucose+galactose ---> lactose (milk sugar) Glucose+glucose ---> maltose d. Polysaccharides i. Consists of many monosaccharides to form long/straight chains or branched chains 1. Examples: 2. Glycogen (animal starch) - composed of many glucose molecules; important storage molecule for energy a. Found in the liver and skeletal muscles of man and animals

3. Starch - composed of long chains of glucose; plants use starch as an energy storage molecule in the same way that man and animals use glycogen 4. Cellulose - composed of long chains of glucose; important structural component of plant cell walls; important component of paper; humans can break starch down as an energy source but not cellulose 35. Lipids a. Fats i.

Triglycerides constitute 95% of the fats in the human body 1. A triglyceride consists of 3 molecules of fatty acids and 1 molecule of glycerol 2. Glycerol is a 3 carbon molecule with a hydroxyl group (-OH) attached to each carbon atom 3. Each fatty acid consists of a straight chain of carbon atoms with a carboxyl group attached to one end 4. Monoglyceride - have 1 fatty acid combined to glycerol 5. Diglycerides - have 2 fatty acids combined to glycerol 6. Triglycerides - have 3 fatty acids combined to glycerol 7. A carboxyl group consists of both an oxygen atom and a hydroxyl group (-OH) attached to a carbon atom 8. The carboxyl group is responsible for the acidic nature of a fatty acid molecule because it releases into a solution 9. One water molecule is given off for each covalent bond formed between a fatty acid molecule and the glycerol -> dehydration reaction To synthesize 1 molecule of monoglyceride from 1 molecule of glycerol and from 1 molecule of fatty acids you must form 1 molecule of water 10. Saturated fatty acids contain only single covalent bonds between the carbon atoms 11. Unsaturated fatty acids have 1 or more double covalent bond between the carbon atoms 12. Saturated fats do not contain any double bonds in their fatty acids 13. Examples of Saturated Fats: beef, pork, whole milk, cheeses, butter, eggs, coconut oil, palm oil 14. Monounsaturated fats have 1 double covalent bond between the carbon atoms

a. Ex: olive oil, peanut oil...