A&P II Final Exam Study Guide PDF

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comprehensive semester study guide, Dr. Jackson...

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Final Exam Study Guide – Digestive System A&P / Comprehensive 1. The final exam (150 pts.) will be held at the following date/time/location (reference: Belmont Exam Schedule Fall 2017): FINAL EXAM TIME: December 12th @11am 2. Anticipated format: - Lots of Multiple Choice! (~40% Factual, ~50% Conceptual, ~10% Application) ____________________________________________________________________________ Study Guide for CH 24 - Digestive System A&P •What are the major functions of the digestive system? Be able to identify the organs of the digestive system and their individual function(s). (Ref: 24-1) •What are the 5 different mesenteries associated with the digestive system? What is each of their functions? Which organs are located in the peritoneal cavity, and which are retroperitoneal? (Ref: 24-1) •What are the 4 histological layers of the digestive tract? What is the importance of each layer physiologically? (Ref: 24-1) •What are the major anatomical / histological features of the salivary glands and the oral cavity (excluding dentition)? What is the function(s) of each? (Ref: 24-2) What is the composition and physiological functions of saliva? •What is the histology of the oropharynx, laryngopharynx, and esophagus? What structures are present in the pharynx to prevent improper movement of ingested food into the respiratory tracts? How does the swallowing reflex function? Be able to correlate esophageal musculature with the voluntary and involuntary swallowing reflex. (Ref: 24-3, 24-4) •What is peristalsis? How is it regulated (locally, neurally, and hormonally), not just in the esophagus, but also throughout the digestive tract? How are short vs. long reflexes regulated? (Ref: 24-1) •What are the anatomical / histological features of the stomach? What are the physiological advantages of having HCl in the stomach? How is the stomach able to hold such a harsh acidic solution, yet not become damaged? What types of cells are found within the gastric pits and gastric glands, and what is/are the function(s) of each type of cell? What is the role(s) of each chemical or hormone produced by these cells in the process of chemical digestion and/or future nutrient absorption in the small intestine? (Ref: 24-5) •Be able to name the three phases of gastric digestion, along with the events that occur in

each phase. When does each individual phase begin / end? How are secretions of chemicals / hormones in the stomach linked to and regulated by these phases? (Ref: 245, Fig. 24-15) •Be able to describe the anatomical / histological features of the small intestine in general, and in terms of its 3 specialized regions. What are the specific structures that contribute to the massive surface area for nutrient absorption within the small intestine? How are the different types of digested nutrients absorbed across the intestinal epithelium and how do the structures of the villus aid in the process of their transfer to the systemic circulation? How do these structures differ with regards to the nutrients that they absorb? (Ref: 24-6, 24-8) •What is/are the function(s) of the various small intestine secretions in terms of supporting chemical digestion and nutrient absorption? How is their release regulated? (Ref: 24-6, 24-8) •Be able to describe the anatomical / histological features of the exocrine pancreas. What are the components of pancreatic juice? Be able to explain why this secretion is important for both nutrient digestion and protection of the rest of the digestive tract. (Ref: 24-6) •Be able to describe the anatomical / histological features and function(s) of the liver. How is cholesterol processed by the liver and transported to/from the cells of the body through the cardiovascular system? (Ref: 24-6, 25-3) •Be able to describe the anatomical / histological features and function(s) of the gall bladder. What are the components of bile and explain why this secretion is important for digestion of lipids? (Ref: 24-6) Which hormone is responsible for the triggering the secretion of bile into the small intestine? Which is involved in increasing bile production by the liver? •Be able to describe the anatomical / histological structure and function(s) of the large intestine/colon, including its regional specializations and its roles in nutrient and water absorption. How is the defection reflex regulated? (Ref: 24-7, 24-8) •Be able to describe the chemical and/or enzymatic events needed for the digestion of carbohydrates, lipids, and proteins. (Ref: 24-8) Note: You should be able to associate names of enzymes with their basic functions in digestion. ____________________________________________________________________________ Study Guide for A&P II Comprehensive Final Exam This portion of the study guide is intended to help you focus your studying for the comprehensive final exam. This exam will emphasize major anatomical, histological, and physiological concepts (and application thereof) covered over the course of the semester in the first 4 units – endocrine/reproductive, cardiac/cardiovascular, respiratory, and renal/urinary. The questions for the final will be different than questions used on any of the prior unit exams, and will be weighted approximately equally in terms of the number of questions per unit. Understand that exam question will not simply be asked as they are listed below, but will be

asked in a way that requires you to think about, and apply, the information contained in this study guide.

Endocrine (CH 18) & Reproductive Systems (CH 28) 1. What is a target cell, and what determines which cells in the body will be target cells for a given hormone? 2. Compare and contrast the functions of the nervous and endocrine systems. 3. Homeostasis is necessary for long-term care and maintenance of our human anatomy and to support and maintain the physiological processes required for life. What are the three levels of homeostatic (and hence physiologic) regulation? What support to homeostasis does each type of regulation provide uniquely, as well as when working in concert with each other? 4. Be able to explain the central role of the Hypothalamic-Pituitary Axis in hormonal regulation of homeostasis. 5. What is a portal system, and how does this differ from most blood circulation in the body? Describe the hypophyseal portal system and explain why this design is perfectly suited for communication between the hypothalamus and the pituitary. 6. Please know the following H-P Axis flow charts [including all downstream organs and hormones, and the direct and indirect effects of the downstream hormones upon their target cell(s)]: TRH, CRH, GH-RH/GH-IH, GnRH (male), and GnRH (female). 7. Be able to explain how thyroid hormones are produced in and secreted from the thyroid gland. Be able to describe the three effects that these hormones have on its target cells in the body. 8. Name the hormones produced by the thyroid and parathyroid glands that contribute to maintaining blood calcium homeostasis in the body. Describe the effects that these hormones have on their target cells that help maintain this calcium homeostasis. 9. What are the effects and the target cells of the hormones produced by each region of the Adrenal gland? 10. What are the effects of the hormones produced by the different types of cells of the endocrine pancreas on their target cells that help the body maintain homeostasis of blood glucose levels? 11. How does physiological and psychological stress lead to the development of human disorders and diseases?

12. What are the components of the glucose sparring effect? Which endocrine hormones can induce it? 13. Compare and contrast spermatogenesis and spermiogenesis in the male reproductive system. Which hormones are causing these events to occur? 14. Describe the events that occur during the follicular and luteal phases of the ovarian cycle in the female reproductive system. Which hormones are causing these events to occur? Which hormones are being produced by the ovaries during this process? 15. Name the three layers of the uterine wall. 16. Name the three phases of the uterine cycle in the female reproductive system. Which hormones are responsible for the progression of these phases? What are the target cells of these hormones and what are they doing that causes the uterine cycle to occur?

Cardiac (CH 20) & Cardiovascular System (CH 21)

1. Be able to trace the flow of blood throughout the heart’s chambers and valves, and both the pulmonary and systemic circuits. 2. Compare and contrast cardiac muscle with skeletal muscle. How do the characteristics of cardiac muscle perfectly suit its function within this system? 3. Compare and contrast the action potential of a cardiac muscle cell with a skeletal muscle cell. Explain why a skeletal muscle can reach tetanus, while a cardiac muscle cell cannot. 4. What are you actually measuring in an ECG? How does the deflections of the ECG relate to the four phases of the cardiac cycle? How is the electrical rhythm of the heart created and distributed across the heart? 5. Why are there two different types of valves in the human heart, and how to do they each function? What are their names and locations? 6. Be able to define and describe the relationship between the following terms: cardiac output, stroke volume, EDV, ESV, afterload, contractility, preload, venous return. How would changes in afterload, contractility, preload, or venous return affect cardiac output, and why? How is cardiac output and stroke volume calculated? 7. Describe the methods the body uses to move blood from the lower extremities (against gravity) back into the heart. How is blood flow to tissues regulated?

8. What are the functions of the various types of blood vessels in the cardiovascular system? What types of pressures are involved in determining filtration or reabsorption across the systemic capillaries? 9. How is blood flow into different body tissues regulated by changes to the blood vessels (locally - metabolic and myogenic autoregulation, and neurally)?

Respiratory System (CH 23) 1. What are the primary functions of the respiratory system? Be able to explain how each process is carried out. 2. Compare and contrast the three types of respiration that occur within the human body. 3. Why is nasal breathing preferred to breathing through the oral cavity? Explain how the upper respiratory tract and the respiratory defense system function to prepare clean, humidify, and decontaminate the air that we inhale. 4. Describe the structure(s) and mechanism(s) that prevent friction between the lungs and the thoracic wall. 5. Follow the path of air from the trachea into the alveoli of the lungs. How does the amount of smooth muscle present on these tubules change as we move from the trachea into the alveoli? How does the constriction/relaxation of smooth muscle affect the movement of air into alveoli? Which system in the body controls this process, and how? 6. What are the different types of cells you might find within lung alveoli? What are the function(s) of these cells and why are they important? What might occur if Type II pneumocytes weren’t working properly? 7. What is Boyle’s Law and how does it relate to the movement of air in the respiratory system? 8. Be able to describe the difference(s) between quiet breathing and forced breathing, and how they are neurally and humorally controlled. Which respiratory muscles are being used in each of the inspiratory and expiratory phases of these processes? 9. Describe the functions of blood and why it is important. 10. How does the design of red blood cells uniquely support their role in gas exchange and compensation of blood pH?

11. Is venous blood completely deoxygenated? Why or why not? Why is this physiologically important to our bodies?

Renal & Urinary System (CH 26) 1. Define filtration, reabsorption, and secretion. Describe the parts of the nephron and know which regions are responsible for these processes. 2. Describe the flow of blood in the renal corpuscle, as well as the arterioles that bring blood into/out of the glomerulus. How would constriction/relaxation of each of these vessels affect filtration, and why? Which of these would constrict/relax in response to high systemic blood pressure? Low systemic blood pressure? 3. Define glomerular filtration rate. What are the three layers of the filtration membrane and how do these three layers determine which molecules are processed into the filtrate? 4. Why is it so important that we maintain a constant GFR? What would be the consequence of having a GFR that is too high? Too low? How would a high or low GFR affect urine volume? Why? 5. Define reabsorption, as it pertains to the nephron. Define transport maximum and renal threshold. Explain the importance of maintaining important molecules so that they do not exceed the renal threshold. 6. Explain the activities that occur in the loop of henle, and how the selective permeabilities of each side of the loop contribute to these functions. 7. Describe the primary function(s) of the PCT and the DCT. 8. Describe the role of ADH and aldosterone on the nephron and how each would affect the reabsorption of water and salt. 9. What are the three direct effects of Angiotensin II within the kidney. Describe how these three effects will function to raise GFR. 10. What is the renal mechanism behind the effectiveness of each of the following classes of diuretics: Loop Diuretics, Thiazide Diuretics, K-Sparring Diuretics?

Physiological Interactions of the Human Body Systems 1. How do the kidneys, lungs, and red blood cells each contribute to the compensation or regulation of blood pH in response to acidosis? In response to alkalosis?

2. How is blood pressure and blood volume regulated (increased or decreased) by cardiac, cardiovascular, and renal mechanisms of regulation (locally, neurally, cardiac reflexes, and/or hormonally)?...