Bio Review Sheet Test 3 - Summary Introduction To College Biology PDF

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Final Exam: Thurs May 26 11AM-12:15PM M/W Lab → SB c205 T/Th Lab → Remsen 100 Number 2 pencil Study Topics for Bio. 011 Final Exam: 1. *Function of colon-The colon is part of the large intestine, the final part of the digestive system. Its function is to reabsorb fluids and process waste products from the body and prepare for its elimination 2. Conditions in stomach that aid in digestion ● Low PH and enzyme pepsin -while teeth mechanically tear and grind food, the salivary glands release the enzyme amylase to degrade carbohydrates. (this glob is called a bolus) -the stomach has low pH and pepsin enzyme to accomplish digestion of proteins -peristalsis moves food through the stomach while a sphincter (like an opening) regulates flow of food into intestine -mucosa is the thick lining of the stomach that prevents the stomach from eating away at itself (this would be an ulcer)

3. Pancreatic enzymes ● Pancreatic amylase, Trypsin, Lipase, Nuclease NOT ISOMERASE -pancreatic amalyse digests starches (this is also found in saliva) -trypsin digests proteins -lipase digests fats -nuclease digests nucleic acids

4. Function of microvilli in small intestine ● Increase the surface area for absorption -absorption of digested nutrients is facilitated by hair-like villi in the intestine

5. Functions of liver ● Production of bile, storage of glucose, production of plasma proteins, removal of poisonous substances from the blood NOT secretion of digestive juices -the liver functions are carried out as blood from the intestines travels to the liver through the hepatic portal system. -removal of poisons and toxins from the blood -production of plasma proteins -destruction of old red blood cells -production of bile -storage of glucose as glycogen -production of urea, a nitrogenous waste –disorders of the liver: jaundice (too many bile pigments in blood), hepatitis (viral infection of the liver), cirrhosis (liver tissue turns into non-functional tissue)

6. 3 steps in respiration 1. Breathing 2. External gas exchange 3. Internal gas exchange between blood and body fluid --allows for the exchange of gases between the blood and external air 1. the inspiration (inhalation) and expiration (exhalation) of breathing

2. external gas exchange between the air and blood within the lungs 3. internal gas exchange between the blood and body fluids

7. Function of cilia in respiratory tract ● Filter dust and debris -this is why smoking is so damaging-because people who smoke destroy the cilia, so dust and debris cannot be removed from the system as efficiently

8. Lung structure (Alveoli) ● The units of lungs across which gas exchange occurs -the branching of the bronchioles and numerous alveoli of the lungs provide a large surface area for gas exchange -the alveoli are in close contact with blood vessels, forming the respiratory membrane which facilitates gas exchange -emphysema is a lung condition that occurs when the alveolar walls have been damaged

9. Breathing mechanism (movement of diaphragm) ● Based on the contraction and relaxation of diaphragm - downward movement and inhalation -all terrestrial vertebrates (except birds)breathe through contractions of the diaphragm -the contraction of the diaphragm creates a negative pressure that causes inspiration -the relaxation of the diaphragm causes expiration -the method of breathing creates a bidirectional, reversible flow of air. -Inspiration-àthe diaphragm contracts, moves downwards. Air flows into lungs. At the same time that the diaphragm moves downward, the ribcage moves outwards. In expiration, the diaphragm relaxes--à moves upwards. The ribcage moves down and inward, which further tightens the chest cavity, forcing air out.

-the movement of the ribcage is instrumental in the breathing process.

10. General function of kidney 1. Are bean shaped paired organs, excrete nitrogenous wastes, maintain the salt water balance of blood, maintain the blood pH -the urine made by the kidneys passes through long tubes called ureters to the urinary bladder, where it is stored before excretion through the urethra. -three main regions: renal cortex (outermost), renal medulla, renal pelvis (innermost)

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Structure of nephron and its relation to urine formation ● During the filtration phase in urine formation small molecules pass from the blood into region known as nephron capsule -the urine producing cells that make up the kidney are called nephrons. -They are the basic functional unit of the kidney -summary: During filtration, small molecules pass from the blood into the nephron capsule. Nutrients and other molecules move back to the blood during reabsorption (in proximal tubule). During secretion, wastes are selectively transported into the distal tube. -nephrons have several parts which contribute to the formation of urine -the nephron capsule, which allows for the diffusion of molecules from the blood -The proximal tubule, (close to the capsule), tightly packed with microvilli (because a lot of absorption takes place, things that are very important to the body) -The nephron loop which has adescening and descending limb -the distal tubule -the collecting duct

12.

Lymphatic organs in immune system (Red bone marrow, thymus gland,

lymph nodes, spleen) NOT PANCREAS -the immune system protects the body by fighting disease, infection, and cancer -our immune system is constantly working to fight off these foreign invaders Red bone marrow-lines skull, sternum, and others. Produces all the different types of red blood cells. Thymus glands-a large gland in the thoracic cavity Lymph nodes-scattered throughout the body, connected by lymph vessels Spleen-located in the abdominal region -specialized lymphatic tissues include tonsils and appendix

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Antibody/Antigen interactions ● Type B blood → B antigens and anti-Antibodies -these various organs, tissues, and cells, provide for immunity, which is the ability to react to antigens, or proteins that are foreign to the organism -antibodies are specialized proteins produced by an organism that bind to specific antigens, and target them for destruction -the formation of an antibody-antigen complex marks an antigen for destruction by neurtophils (gobble up), or macrophages (send out cytoplasmic extensions), that act through phagocytosis. -the antibody-antigen complex may also amplify the immune response -the proteins that determine blood type are a “self” antigen on the surface of red blood cells. Type A, B, and AB Blood cells result from the presence of the A and/or B antigen. Type O Blood is when the red blood cells lack the A or B antigen. -A person who has type a blood, the blood will naturally produce anti-B antibodies, which don’t normally belong in the body, and vice-versa. -If incompatible types of blood are mixed, antibody-antigen complexes can form when agglutination occurs. -This clumping of red blood cells restricts blood flow and can ultimately be fatal.

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Lymphocytes (B cells; T cells) ● A person who has had the measles will usually not get the measles a second time due to immunity of the function of B-lymphocytes and T-Lymphocytes -The various large immune organs in the body have specific functions and contain various types of immunocells

-each lymphatic organ contains one or more lymphocytes, a category of immunocells that protect the body -The B and T lymphocytes (B and T cells) are produced by the red bone marrow -Immature T cells produced by the red bone marrow go to the thymus where they finish maturing. -The thymus produces hormones that help the T cells mature, and they are released by the thymus. -lymphocytes in the lymph nodes all contribute to the defense against antigens and pathogens in the lymphatic fluid -the spleen and its red pulp and white pulp (white pulp contains lymphocytes as well) -Plasma cells are responsible for the mass production of antibodies for the antigen, these are released into the bloodstream to help identify the antigen within the body

15. Immunizations (promote active immune response & formation of memory cells) ● Vaccines protect people from getting specific diseases is by promoting an active immune response and formation of memory B cells -Once you are exposed to something and recover from the actual infection, your body still contains information about what that pathogen was like. These are important because if you are exposed to the same pathogen, the immune response will be able to ward it off very rapidly. -Memory B cells allow the body to make an immune response very quickly if the antigen is perceived again -vaccines and immunizations are used to protect individuals from specific diseases, and the into of a vaccine promotes an active immune response and the formation of memory B cells, meaning the body will be ready to respond quickly if disease is perceived. -the immune system can go bad, if it goes against itself, when the body recognizes “self” as “nonself”, and the body begins to attack itself.

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Allergic response (release of histamine from mast cells) ● Sneezing violently after sniffing rose and inhaled the pollen -allergies are a hypersensitive response to antigens called allergens. -here, the body wages an immune response over something that is really harmless, but the body becomes hypersensitive anyhow -allergies may be life threatening, and the immediate allergic response allows huge amount of histamine to be released from mast cells, leading to a swelling of throat and breathing passages. -delayed allergic responses happen sometime after the exposure to the allergen (probably due to cytokines secreted by immunocells)

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Autoimmune diseases ● MS and Rheumatoid arthritis -occur when cytotoxic T cells attack the body’s own cells -includes multiple sclerosis, systemic lupus, and rheumatoid arthritis -The main course of treatment are medications that prevent the attack of the body's cells. -AIDS (auto immunodeficiency syndrome) occurs when the body loses the ability to fight infection. Outside agents makes problems by destroying the helper T cell population, leading to susceptibility to secondary infections -AIDS is caused by HIV

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Parts of Central Nervous System versus Peripheral Nervous System ● CNS ○ Consists of brain/ spinal cord ○ Capable of summarizing incoming messages before sending and outgoing ○ It is connected to the body by peripheral nerves ○ It is highly evolved ○ Has Centers that control specific activities -the nervous system regulates the bodies activities, and use hormones to exert this control. Nerve cells are specialized in role, and complex sense organs have evolved. The Nervous system allows us to maintain homeostasis, by selecting the appropriate response to our environment. -The CNS is the brain and spinal cord. -these nerves are paired and symmetrical -capable of summarizing incoming messages before sending an outgoing one -connected to body by peripheral nerves -the brain is organized into three zones: forebrain (highly infolded), the midbrain, and the hindbrain -the spinal cord is the go=between between the brain and the PNS -the brain stem regulates involuntary function we don’t consciously control (midbrain, pons, medulla) -the PNS is the nerves outside of the CNS -Primary components are the 12 cranial nerves that connect PNS to brain -The PNS also has 31 pairs of spinal nerves that contain many sensory and motor axons -All crucial in terms of communicating with the external environment -The somatic system of the PNS involve the nerves that convey sensory info to the CNS, and then to nerves that send impulses to skeletal muscles -What happens if someone sticks your finger with a pin, it shows how reflexively remove your hand so you don't get pierced anymore. shows the communication between neurons in the skin with interneurons in the CNS, and then motor neurons that communicate information to the muscles and skeletal components.

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Comparison of functions of sensory neuron, interneuron and motor neuron ● Neuron part that receives impulses is dendrite ● Motor Neurons → take nerve impulses from CNS to muscles or glands – Sensory neurons receive impulses from sensory receptors and transmit them to the CNS. – Interneurons form bridges between different parts of the CNS to integrate activities and perform higher function. – Motor neurons transmit signals from the CNS to muscles and glands to stimulate their function.

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Role of neurotransmitters at a synapse ● Transmission of the nerve impulse from one neuron to the next occurs via release of neurotransmitters -The ability of neurons to transmit nerve impulses depends on the difference in charge across the cell membrane -The interior of neurons is more negatively charged compared to the outside -the transmission of a nerve impulse along the neuron involves a rapid reversal of negative charge along the membrane (look at the animation for this). This is called an action potential. -In CNS, the axon of one neuron and the dendrite fo the next is separated by a gap called the synapse. In the PNS, this gap is called a synaptic cleft. -the transmission from one nerve impulse to next is aided by the release of chemicals into the synapse, such as Acetylcholin and Norepinephrin. -After an action potential arrives at an axon terminal, synaptic vesicles fuse with the membrane. Neurotransmitter moecules are released and bind to reecptors on membrane. -drugs alter the action of neurotransmitter in body (stimulants too many, depressants decrease. Both are dangerous, don’t get a realistic perspective of what your environment is)

21.

Functions of hypothalamus ● Region of the brain that regulates functions such as hunger, thirst and body temperature -The thermostat of the body-regulates hunger, thirst, temperature

22.

Main function of Cerebrum in brain ● To coordinate activities of the other parts of the brain -the cerebrum coordinates activities of other parts of the brain, interpreting sensations,moving muscles. -it is divided into halves and has a core of what matter covered by the outer gray matter (the cerebral cortex) -areas within the cerebrum are devoted to specific functions -the diencephalon: has the thalamus and the hypothalamus, thalamus receives sensory input from all senses except smell , and the hypothalamus regulates functions such as hunger, thirst, and body temprature. -The cerebellum (towards the back of the brain) coordinates muscular activity so movement is smooth and integrated. It is involved with maintenance of posture, balance, and muscle tone. Sends messages to skeletal muscles.

23. Differences between sympathetic and parasympathetic division of Autonomic Nervous System (Fight and Flight response) ● Fight/flight → sympathetic branch of autonomic nervous system systems are somatic and limbic-same basic structures, but interpreting the functions of the nervous systems in different ways) -the autonomic system provides involuntary control of glands, cardiac muscle, and smooth muscle -the sympathetic division mediates the so called “flight or fight” reponses. The primitive, basic, fear response seen is all vertebrate animals. -the parasympathetisc division mediates processes during the resting state -same structures being activated, but the responses are opposite in nature.

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25.

sperm cells (parts and functions) ● Sperm formed in testes ● Genetic material material found in head

Female reproductive organs (overview) ● The structure that conducts the egg to uterus is the oviduct -the egg-producing ovaries (the gonads) -the oviducts (fallopian tubes) that conduct the egg cells to the uterus. Fertilization takes place here. -the uterus, where development of the embryo occurs -the cervix, the narrow back to the uterus, and vagina, which provide openings for sperm to enter during copulationthe ovaries are composed of millions of follicles that contain oocytes for the production of eggs -when mature, the egg from a follicle erupts and is released (ovulation) -after ovulation, the follicle develops into the corpus luteum, which degenerates if fertilization does not occur -ovulation occurs around day 14, and the luteal phase occurs during the last 14 days of the menstrual cycle. During days 15-28, progesterone promotes development of the endometrium to prepare for a fertilized embryo (secretory phase). If a fertilized embryo does not implant, endometrium degrades and menstruation occurs.

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Gastrulation ● Cells of the embryo begin to invaginate ● The amnion begin to develop ● Ectoderm, endoderm and mesoderm develop ● Gastrulation is complete 3 germ layers are present -The embryonic development involves developmental events prior to implantation. –Ovulation releases a mature egg. –Fertilization occurs to form a zygote. –The zygote undergoes cleavage (cell division) to form a morula. (not any larger than the original egg, just made up of a lot of cells that are a lot smaller. –The morula develops into a fluid-filled ball of cells called a blastocyst. –The blastocyst implants in the uterus. -The blastula (kind of like a balloon with fluid) then undergoes a process called gastualtion, which is essentially an inward movement of cells, like someone is poking a finger and pushing the tissue inwards. The result is a gastrula embryo. Here, you get the formation of the first three types of tissue. We see not only growth in terms of number of cells, but also a process of differentiation, or specialization of cells. -During gastrulation, the cells of the embryo begin to invaginate, the amnion begins to develop, and the ectoderm, endoderm, and mesoderm develop. Gastrulation is complete when the three tissue germ layers are present. -during gastrulation, the different embryotic membranes are forming. as the inward movement of cells take place, you begint o get the three primary tissue layers, that will eventually give rise to different types fo structures in the developing embryo.

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Tissues that Ectoderm, Mesoderm and Endoderm give rise to ● The nervous system and the epidermis of the skin

Ectoderm (outer layer): Nervous system, epidermis of skin, epithelial lining of oral cavity and rectum. Mesoderm (middle layer): musculoskeletal system, dermis of skin, cardiovascular system, urinary system, reproductive system, outer layers or respiratory and digestive systems Endoderm (inner layer): Epithelial lining of digestive tract and respiratory tract; associated glands of these systems; epithelial lining of urinary bladder.

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Function of Placenta ● Has both a fetal and maternal side -at 5 weeks, the fetus is already fairly developed (flippers, head and sensory organs develop, umbilical cord, connects to placenta). The heartbeat can be detected after 2.5 months, fetal movement begins sometime around the fourth month. -the placenta is comprised of the embryonic fetus and the uterine wall -the chorionic villi of the chorion project into the uterine wall to facilitate exchange between fetus and mother -the umbilical cord carries fetal blood to and from the placenta (there is no actual mixing, there is simply exchange of materials across the placenta) -while fetal and maternal blood do not mix, a variety of chemicals can cross the placenta into the fetus (that’s why the mother has to be careful about what she eats) -Can see the relationship of the developing embryo to various different membranes. -situated within the amneon, see the umbilical cord which connects with the placenta, and the chorionic villi. -Developing placenta has both fetal component, and maternal component.

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Carrying capacity The number of individuals and environment can maintain over an indefinite period of time -after the industrial revolution in the 1800s, a sharp increase in human population growth began -we are not living in isolation from the natural environment, or other species. -Carrying capacity is the number of t...