Biosci 107 Mid Term Summaries PDF

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CELLS AND TISSUESOrganization (chemical, cellular, tissue, organ, system):INTEGUMENTARY – epidermis, dermis (feeds epidermis – papillary = areolar CT, reticular = dense irreg. CT), hair, sweat glands (incl. breast tissue) , nails, sensory receptors, hypodermis. MUSCULAR – skeletal muscle: axial (sup...

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CELLS AND TISSUES

CELL STRUCTURE AND FUNCTION

Organization (chemical, cellular, tissue, organ, system):

Intro: Cell theory (all living organisms made of cells, basic unit, all cells Embryology:

SPECIAL TOPICS

INTEGUMENTARY – epidermis, dermis (feeds epidermis – papillary = areolar CT, come from pre-existing cells). Eukaryotes (larger + membrane bound reticular = dense irreg. CT), hair, sweat glands (incl. breast tissue), nails, sensory organelles). Prokaryotes (lacks membrane bound nucleus). Both have Egg = 1/10 mm. Embryogenesis: Patterning (cells acquire identity in space and receptors, hypodermis. MUSCULAR – skeletal muscle: axial (support + PM, cytosol, DNA, RNA, protein + ribosomes. ENDOMEMBRANE – time). Major axis defined early (anterior/head + posterior/tail + dorsal + work together to package + ship molecules (nucleus, ER, golgi, positioning), appendicular (brace + movement), tendon (muscle to bone), ventral). Gastrulation (3 germ layers defined: endoderm (lining of 2 tubes – aponeuroses (muscle to muscle). SKELETAL – cartilage = bone interfaces: hyaline lysosomes). respiratory + digestive), mesoderm (muscle cells, CT, blood, cardiovascular, (ribs) + fibro (discs), axial (skull, vertebrae, sacrum, coccyx, sternum, supporting C skeletal), ectoderm (nervous system + epidermis, hair Organelles: Plasma Membrane Proteins (transport channels which may follicles. Fertilization: chemotaxis (egg attracts sperm), thermotaxis (sperm & L: protect CNS, sense organs, soft thoracic tissue, support body weight), be general or selective + gated or not, enzymatic, signal transduction of seeks out egg bc its warm). Rudiments (basic elements of major appendicular (limbs + supporting B & L: internal support, positioning, enables muscles to move axial skeleton), bone, red marrow (RBCs in flat bones), yellow external signaling, cell-cell recognition via GLYCOPROTEINS, intercellular organ). Cleavage and formation of blastocyst: Rapid cell division – blastocyst marrow (fat in medullary cavity). NERVOUS – CNS (brain: integrative activities, joining, attachment to cytoskeleton and ECM e.g., fibronectin mediates between day 4 and 5 (Trophoblast (Synctiotrophoblast: release enzymes that controls voluntary and involuntary. Spinal cord: less complex integration, relays contact between cell surface integrins and ECM). Nucleus (enclosed by allow embryo to implant and RELEASES HCG, Cytotrophoblast: form embryo info), special senses: also, part of PNS EXCEPT optic nerve (sight, hearing, smell, double lipid bilayer (envelope), protect DNA, NUCLEOLUS = rRNA side of placenta (CHORIONIC VILLI which will later mix with maternal side of synthesis, assembly of ribosomal subunits, pore regulates movement of placenta) + Inner cell mass (Epiblast cells – likely ectoderm, Hypoblast cells – taste, equilibrium), PNS (links CNS with other systems). ENDOCRINE: pineal protein and mRNA, molecule segregation for temporal and spatial (sleep), hypothalamus/pituitary (master gland, growth, fluid balance), thyroid likely endoderm). Implantation day 6 into uterine wall – development of control of cell function. DNA (wrapped 2x around 8 histones = (metabolism, calcium), parathyroid (calcium), thymus (maturation of BILAMINAR EMBYRONIC DISC (epiblast + hypoblast). Development of lymphocytes), adrenal (water + mineral balance (aldosterone), tissue metabolism nucleosomes = collectively known as chromatin, condenses in AMNIOTIC CAVITY: dome-like structure forming above epiblast (cortisol), cardio and resp. (adrenaline), kidneys (RBC prod, calcium, blood chromatin fiber, condenses into loops + stacks = chromosomes, most of cells, amnion encase embryo later on (protection, fluid filled, buffer embryo: time DNA is present as chromatin and fibers. Ribosomes (free = proteins impact, temp, drying out, prevents tissue from sticking. Development of Yolk pressure up), pancreas (glucose control), gonads (sexual characteristics) – IGF used in cytosol, attached = proteins with endomembrane (insulin-like growth hormone): gigantism (too much GH from childhood) AND sac: Hypoblast cells migrate to form it. Placenta being formed from destinations). RER (continuous with nuclear envelope, proteins enter trophoblasts which have enlarged – lacunar networks = continuous open acromegaly (too much GH as an adult). LYMPHATIC – lymphatic vessels (carry lymph fluid (water, protein, lipids from gut + lymphocytes (B & T cells) from lumen for FOLDING, surrounds protein to form TRANSPORT VESICLES network with maternal blood supply). Gastrulation – week 3 (3 germ layers peripheral tissues to veins of CV system), nodes (includes tonsils: monitors for golgi). SER (extends from RER, housing unit for proteins + laid down. 2D disc to 3D organism. Embryo attached by connecting stalk, composition of lymph, engulf pathogens, stimulate immune response), spleen enzymes (liver glucose release) future posterior. FORMATION OF PRIMITIVE STREAK (marks start of (like a large lymph node: monitors circulation of blood cells, engulfs pathogens, + CALCIUM, lipid synthesis. Golgi (sacs/cisternae, cis to gastrulation): movement of cells from outer ectodermal layer on dorsal side trans, modify/sort/package proteins using enzymes, forms secretory RECYCLES RBCs, immune response), thymus (maturation of back in from tail to head, ectodermal layer transitioning in to become (exocytosis), membrane, transport (to lymphocytes). CARDIOVASCULAR: heart, blood vessels, blood (transport of mesoderm – loosely packed, (invagination = inside out). NOTOCHORDAL gases, nutrients, hormones, waste removal, immune, thermoregulation, acid lysosomes). Lysosomes (membrane proteins pumps H to maintain low PROCESS: notochord = solid rod of cells which form in new mesodermal layer, base balance). RESPIRATORY: nasal cavity (filter and humidify air), pharynx (air to pH, DIGESTS substances that enter cell + organelles + entire cells, notochord tells neighboring cells what to do via INDUCTION (releases larynx), larynx (protects vocal cords & opening to trachea), trachea (conducts recycles building blocks = IMPORTANT in destruction of substances give signals to form other tissue such as nervous tissue in pathogens. Mitochondria (inner folds of membrane = cristae, fluid filled ectoderm), ectodermal cells thickening to become neural air), bronchi, lungs (gas ex, acid base balance). DIGESTIVE: oral cavity, salivary glands, pharynx, esophagus, stomach, small intestine, liver, gallbladder, pancreas cavity = matrix). Cytoskeleton (micro: DYNAMIC, 7nm, long twisted plate. NEURALATION: beginning of organogenesis, neural plate fold + join and (endocrine cells + digestive enzymes), large intestine & anus. URINARY: kidneys chains of actin, periphery and lining interior, anchor cytoskeleton sink under ectodermal tissue to form neural tube. Notochord signals lateral to PM proteins, intermediate: MOST PERMANENT, 8-12nm, (regulate pH, form and concentrates urine, blood volume and mesoderm to form somites (ribs, skeleton, muscle of neck and pressure), ureters, bladder, urethra. EPO: Erythropoietin is a glycoprotein keratin, scaffold for organelles, microtubules: DYNAMIC, 25nm, tubulin back). EMBRYONIC FOLDING: lateral + head to tail, shape change achieved by produced by fibroblasts in KIDNEYS – increased RBC production via dimers, coiled, extends from CENTRIOLES, guide movement of vesicles, different rates of cell division. PHARYNGEAL ARCHES – tissues present from all cell division, movement of cilia/flagella. hemocytoblasts = greater oxygen carrying capacity in blood. MALE 3 layers: external structures on ventral side and give rise to head and neck – REPRO: testes (sperm production, hormones in endocrine), accessory organs 28 days. RECAP: fertilization, cleavage, implantation, gastrulation, (epididymis, ductus deferens, seminal glands, prostate gland, urethra: sperm Cellular Respiration and Homeostasis organogenesis – neuralation, embryonic folding. maturation, seminal fluid, sperm to exterior), external (penis, scrotum). FEMALE REPRO: ovaries (oocytes and hormones in endocrine), uterine tubes, uterus, Human Skin Biology Glycolysis (Cytosol, NO OXYGEN, lysis of glucose, 2 ATP = 2 net ATP + vagina (lubrication, sperm reception, birth canal), mammary glands (nutrition 2NADH). Pyruvate Oxidation (Matrix, OXYGEN, NO ATP, produces 1 and is a modified sweat gland in integumentary). Epidermis (barrier, continued renewal, no structural strength, mainly consists NADH per pyruvate + 1 CO2, formation of acetyl CoA). Citric Acid of layers of keratinocytes NO CT for strength, keratinocytes (produce keratin Cycle (Matrix, OXYGEN, 2ATP + 6NADH + 2FADH2 + 4CO2 per glucose. ETC (NADH + FADH2 oxidized to DONATE 1 or 2 electrons to filament, quite active), no vasculature = all nutrient supply and waste removal proteins along chain, at each transfer each electron gives up a small through DIFFUSION from dermis. Layers of Epidermis (BSGLC): Basale (stem amount of energy, H ion pumped into the intermembrane space, cells, transmit amplifying keratinocytes, proliferate to provide cells to top CYTOSKELETON (actin microfilaments: dynamic, strength, link cytoplasm to cell Oxygen “pulls” electrons down the chain is the final electron acceptor layers – limited number of cell division before apoptosis, keratinocytes division membrane, muscle contraction + keratin intermediate filaments: most and reduced to water, CHEMIOSMOSIS: H ions rush down their proton = one cell remains stem cell and one cell becomes amplifying permanent, strength, move materials through cytoplasm. gradient through ATP synthase = rotation of ATP synthase = 26 or keratinocytes), Spinosum (8 –10 layers, keratinocytes start to flatten out, 28 ATP. CYANIDE blocks passage of electrons to O2 = cell keratin intermediate filaments and desmosomes hold cells together tightly death. PHOSPOFRUCTOKINASE (rate limiting for glycolysis, inhibited by (barrier), Granulosum (flattened keratinocytes undergoing apoptosis = release CELL JUNCTIONS: Junctional Complex: Tight, Adherens, Desmosomes. TIGHT (stomach, intestines, bladder: individual sealing strands of citrate and ATP, stimulated by AMP which accumulates WHEN ATP IS IN lipids to help form barrier, lamellar granules fuse to PM and release lipids, CLAUDINS and OCCLUDINS, joins cytoskeleton of adjacent cells, maintain CELL RAPID USE. keratohyalin: dark granules which form keratin intermediate filaments POLARITY. ADHEREN (adhesion belts – plaque layer of proteins on side of cell to into keratin), Lucidum (only in thick skin), Corneum (25-30 layers of join ACTIN to CADHERINS via CATENINS: prevent cell separation from tension Insulin (beta cells, glucose uptake into cells). Glucagon (alpha cells, flattened dead keratinocytes, apoptosis has stopped, keratinocytes overlap forces like CONTRACTIONS. DESMOSOME (plaque, CADHERINS span gap and linksbreakdown of glycogen). DIABETES MELLITUS: abnormal metabolism of like scales). EPIDERMAL TURNOVER ONCE A MONTH. to KERATIN: found in skin, cardiac cells, RESIST SHEARING FORCES. GAP (found in carbs and elevated glucose levels in blood due to impaired ability to heart + osteocytes, direct connections between cells an allows 1kDa molecules produce OR respond to insulin. Type 1 (LACKS INSULIN as beta cells are BM between epidermis and dermis, mutation in BM proteins result destroyed), Type 2 (DEFECT RECEPTORS) in EPIDERMOLYSIS BULLOSA = keratinocytes can't attach to BM, epidermis can through, 6 connexin – 1 connexon, 2 connexons = gap easily detach by forces. RETE RIDGES: contour provides resistance to shear junction. HEMIDESMOSOME (connect KERATIN in epithelia to LAMININ in BM forces, strength between epidermis and (basal lamina secreted by epithelial cells and reticular lamina secreted by Gene to Protein: dermis. PIGMENTATION: Melanocytes on BM epidermal side: melanocytes fibroblasts in CT) via INTEGRIN. EPITHELIA are avascular BUT contain nerves. BM make melanosomes which contain melanin, one melanocyte contacts 36 FUNCTIONS: support overlying epithelium, provides surface along which Gene Expression Control: Housekeeping proteins (tubulin, long halfkeratinocytes via dendrites, pheomelanin (yellow/red), eumelanin (brown, epithelial cells migrate during growth and wound healing, acts as a physical lives), cell signaling (ligand binds, signal transduced and may enter barrier (against melanoma ABCD), FILTRATION of substances in the KIDNEY. nucleus to activate transcription, results in short-lived protein to carry black), nuclear cap protects keratinocyte DNA. Langerhans cells find foreign organisms – can then move into dermis to find help. Dermis: Vascular - lined out needed function). by laminin and contractile SMA proteins, structural strength for skin, dense COVERING AND LINING EPITHELIA: Simple squamous (filtration in kidney, diffusion in lung, inside eye, mesothelium = lines pericardial, pleural, peritoneal TRANSCRIPTION: Initiation (TATA box promoter, transcription factors matrix made of collagen and elastin fibres, strong and supple, thickness varies, very stable, MINIMAL TURNOVER, fibroblasts produce collagen and cavities, endothelium = lines inside of heart, blood and lymphatic (TBP), RNA Pol II forms transcription initiation vessels), Simple cuboidal (pancreas ducts, parts of kidney tubules, smaller ducts complex), Elongation (complementary RNA nucleotides added to 3’ end elastin, papillary = loose CT, reticular = low cells, high fibres of many glands, secretory chambers of thyroid, anterior surface of lens, posterior via PHOSPHODIESTER BONDS), Termination (after transcription Hypodermis (contains underlying CT): connects skin to underlying fibrous of retina), Simple columnar (CILIATED = have goblet cells, located in bronchioles, of polyadenylation signal (AAUAAA), nuclear enzyme releases pretissue of bone and muscles, loose areolar CT and loose adipose tissue (fat fallopian tubes, sinuses, spinal cord, ventricles of brain, NON-CILIATED = have storage, insulation, heat source). Wound healing: Superficial (epidermis mRNA and RNA Pol, PROOFREADING IS LESS than DNA. MRNA microvilli and goblet cells, located in gut mucosa, ducts of many glands, gall only, migration of keratinocytes from wound edges and dermal appendages processing (capping with a modified guanine nucleotide to (sweat glands, hair follicles, sebaceous glands), once all keratinocytes in bladder), Stratified squamous – lower layers maybe cuboidal or columnar, 5’, tailing with 50-250 adenine nucleotides to 3’ = stability contact on all sides, stratification occurs to reform), Partial protect against microbes, in places where mechanical stress and dehydration is + facilitate ribosome binding, SPLICING via spliceosomes in nucleus an issue, surface is waterproof due to keratin (KERATINISED = skin), (NONwhich removes introns and rejoins exons – alternative splicing (different thickness (epidermis and some of dermis, 4 phases of healing, inflammatory phase: immune cells clean wound, migratory: KERATINISED = mouth, throat, tongue, esophagus, anus and combos of exons joined together) = more than 20,000 combos. vagina), Stratified cuboidal (ducts of adult sweat glands, esophageal glands, malePROTEIN SEQUENCE decides FINAL STRUCTURE. keratinocytes migrate from wound edge and appendages, fibroblasts migrate into the clot to make collagen fibres (dermis), proliferate: keratinocytes urethra), Stratified columnar (Rare: part of urethra, large gland ducts such as TRANSLATION: Initiation (small subunit with initiator tRNA esophageal glands, anal mucosal membrane, part of conjunctiva of the (Met) already bound, THEN binds 5’ cap of mRNA, small subunit scans proliferate, maturation: epidermal stratification then scab falls off), Full eye), Pseudostratified columnar – All cells contact BM but NOT ALL reach apical downstream to find start site (AUG), HYDROGEN BONDS form between thickness ( all of epidermis and dermis destroyed, hypodermis can be surface (CILIATED = have goblet cells, upper airways), (NON-CILIATED = NO destroyed too, exposing bone and muscle, healing very difficult as ALL of the anticodon and mRNA, large subunit binds = initiation reservoirs of epidermal stem cells destroyed, keratinocytes migrate from GOBLET CELLS, large ducts, epididymis, part of male urethra), STRATIFIED complex (REQUIRES GTP). TRANSLATION: (codon TRANSITIONAL (Internal lining of BLADDER) recognition – GTP increases accuracy, peptide formation – catalyzed by wound edges and heals as scar tissue. INTERVENTION: Split thickness skin graft = all epidermis + part of dermis becomes partial thickness wound; donor large subunit + REMOVES tRNA in P site, translocation – GTP, moves site will heal in 10-14 days. BURN WOUND ENGINEERED SKIN: starts with GLANDULAR EPITHELIA: Endocrine (secretes directly into blood usually via tRNA from A to P + tRNA in P site moves to E and is traversing interstitial fluid, examples: pituitary, pineal, thyroid, parathyroid, released. Termination (ribosome reaches stop codon (UAG, UAA, UGA) small sample of undamaged patient skin, isolate to expand (grow fibroblasts GENERALLY LONG-DISTANCE EFFECTS), Exocrine (secretes into ducts that empty in A site, RELEASE FACTOR binds to stop codon, bond between P site and keratinocytes), grow to cover wounds, autologous (patient's own skin so onto the surface of a covering or lining epithelium, examples: sweat and salivary and last amino acid is HYDROLYSED = releasing polypeptide, subunits no rejection), limitations = no pigmentation, no hair follicles, no sweat, sebaceous glands glands, oil glands, wax glands, pancreas, GENERALLY LOCAL EFFECTS). Single cell disassemble via 2 GTP) gland (mucous cells that secrete mucin). Simple tubular (intestinal glands), Simple coiled tubular (MEROCRINE sweat glands), Simple branched PROTEIN STRUCTURE Protein: Amino acid properties (decided by side chains). Primary (N to tubular (gastric glands, mucous glands of esophagus, tongue, duodenum), Simple C terminus, held by COVALENT BONDS, forms secondary structure AS is a chain/polymer of amino acids linked by peptide bonds AKA polypeptide. alveolar (stage in embryonic development of simple branched glands), Simple SOON AS it LEAVES RIBOSOME. Secondary (WEAK H BONDS to form branched alveolar (sebaceous glands) HOLOCRINE. Compound tubular (mucous alpha helix and beta sheets). Tertiary (3D shape stabilized by SIDE glands in mouth, bulbourethral glands in male repro, seminiferous CHAIN INTERACTIONS). Quaternary (Multiple proteins associate + tubules. Compound alveolar (mammary glands APOCRINE), Compound Tubo prosthetic groups). alveolar – forms tubes and sacs (salivary glands, glands of respiratory passages, pancreas MEROCRINE) SRP (SIGNAL RECOGNITION PARTICLE): Directs ribosomes to RER (SRP binds to signal peptide (N terminus), SRP binds to SRP RECEPTOR on RER, SRP detaches and polypeptide synthesis resumes, signal cleaving Connective Tissue (NOT found on body surfaces, highly vascular enzyme CUTS OFF signal peptide into lumen, folding of polypeptide – except cartilage and tendons, supplied by nerves except cartilage) secretory protein (INSULIN) is solubilized in lumen, membrane protein remains anchored to membrane. CT = ECM (GS + Protein fibres) + Cells Protein fibers are secreted by the cells in ECM DNA ALTERATIONS: large scale (chromosomal), small scale Structure of ECM = CT qualities (nucleotides). Point mutations (substitution = one base replaced by

Epithelia (covers body surface, forms glands & lines hollow organs, cavities, and ducts):

another – minimal OR major effect, insertion/deletions = can cause a Peptide bond formation Key functions: binds, support and strengthens other body tissues, major transport system of the body, major site of stored energy reserves frameshift – major effect). Mutation at N terminus = greater harm. GS: (water, proteins, sugars (GAGS = long and unbranched, amino sugar, uronic sugar, polar and hydrophilic). GAGS join with core proteins to form Cell Communication: PROTEOGLYCANS. Sulphated GAG (Dermatan = skin (dermis), tendons, blood vessels, heart valves, Heparin, Keratan = bone, cartilage, cornea of the Types of signaling: Local (act on NEARBY target cells, fibroblast growth eye, Chondroitin = support and provide adhesive features of cartilage, bone, skin,factor – paracrine, acetylcholine), Long distance (hormones in blood vessels: these ...